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82-738: From 1935 to 1971 civil defence in the United Kingdom was the responsibility of the Civil Defence Department and resulted in the establishment during 1957 of the United Kingdom Warning and Monitoring Organisation . On the run-down of civil defence in 1971 the department was replaced by the Home Defence and Emergency Services Division of the Home Office . The senior official of the department

164-523: A diminishing returns trend. Contrary to the largely noncommittal approach taken in NATO , with its stops and starts in civil defense depending on the whims of each newly elected government, the military strategy in the comparatively more ideologically consistent USSR held that, amongst other things, a winnable nuclear war was possible. To this effect the Soviets planned to minimize, as far as possible,

246-414: A pontoon bridge for crossing water obstacles. Sanitary epidemiological reconnaissance implies collection and transfer of all data available on sanitary and epidemiological situation of the area of possible deployment and action of armed forces , the same data for the neighboring and enemy armed forces. The aim for the reconnaissance is to clear up the reasons of the specific disease origin- sources of

328-405: A relatively short battle that lasted only 9 days. When referring to reconnaissance, a commander's full intention is to have a vivid picture of his battlespace . The commander organizes the reconnaissance platoon based on: This analysis determines whether the platoon uses single or multiple elements to conduct the reconnaissance, whether it pertains to area , zone , or route reconnaissance ,

410-590: A case of war) from throughout the USSR to join the Chernobyl task force and formed on the basis of the Kyiv Civil Defense Brigade. The task force performed some high-risk tasks including, with the failure of their robotic machinery, the manual removal of highly- radioactive debris. Many of their personnel were later decorated with medals for their work at containing the release of radiation into

492-445: A country's population is more valuable than all of the land, factories and other assets that it possesses. People rebuild a country after its destruction, and it is therefore important for the economic security of a country that it protect its people. According to psychology , it is important for people to feel as though they are in control of their own destiny, and preparing for uncertainty via civil defense may help to achieve this. In

574-628: A designated area/building and required to monitor the fall of incendiary bombs and pass on news of any fires that had broken out to the NFS. They could deal with an individual magnesium alloy ("Elektron") incendiary bomb by dousing it with buckets of sand or water or by smothering. Additionally, 'Gas Decontamination Teams' kitted out with gas-tight and waterproof protective clothing were to deal with any gas attacks . They were trained to decontaminate buildings, roads, rail and other material that had been contaminated by liquid or jelly gases. Little progress

656-560: A model civil defense structure for the U.S. Called the "Blue Book" by civil defense professionals in reference to its solid blue cover, it was the template for legislation and organization for the next 40 years. Perhaps the most memorable aspect of the Cold War civil defense effort was the educational effort made or promoted by the government. In Duck and Cover , Bert the Turtle advocated that children " duck and cover " when they "see

738-628: A nuclear attack are effects from the blast, fires and radiation. One of the most prepared countries for a nuclear attack is Switzerland . Almost every building in Switzerland has an abri (shelter) against the initial nuclear bomb and explosion followed by the fall-out. Because of this, many people use it as a safe to protect valuables, photos, financial information and so on. Switzerland also has air-raid and nuclear-raid sirens in every village. A "radiologically enhanced weapon", or " dirty bomb ", uses an explosive to spread radioactive material. This

820-431: A rule. They expect and are prepared to fight to obtain the desired information. Often they assign supplementary tasks to their reconnaissance units, such as sabotage behind enemy lines, harassment, or counter-reconnaissance. Only enough reconnaissance troops are sent on a mission to assure superiority in the area to be reconnoitred. Reserves are kept on hand to be committed when the reconnaissance must be intensified, when

902-630: A significant investment in civil and military defense, British civilian losses during the Blitz were higher than in most strategic bombing campaigns throughout the war. For example, there were 14,000-20,000 UK civilian fatalities during the Battle of Britain, a relatively high number considering that the Luftwaffe dropped only an estimated 30,000 tons of ordinance during the battle. Granted, this resulting 0.47-0.67 civilian fatalities per ton of bombs dropped

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984-453: A socio-cultural backdrop. It is information developed from data related to civil areas, structures, capabilities, organizations, people, and events, within the civil component of the commander's operational environment that can be processed to increase situational awareness and understanding. The type of civil information that is needed in order to support military operations varies based on the environment and situation. Route reconnaissance

1066-414: A specified area; the military commander may utilize his reconnaissance assets to conduct an area reconnaissance to avoid being surprised by unsuitable terrain conditions, or most importantly, unexpected enemy forces. The area could be a town, ridge-line, woods, or another feature that friendly forces intend to occupy, pass through, or avoid. Within an area of operation (AO), area reconnaissance can focus

1148-534: A wide brief for assisting in large scale civil emergencies such as flood, earthquake, invasion, or civil disorder. After the September 11 attacks in 2001, in the United States the concept of civil defense has been revisited under the umbrella term of homeland security and all-hazards emergency management. In Europe , the triangle CD logo continues to be widely used. Created in 1939 by Charles Coiner of

1230-430: Is a theoretical risk, and such weapons have not been used by terrorists. Depending on the quantity of the radioactive material, the dangers may be mainly psychological. Toxic effects can be managed by standard hazmat techniques. The threat here is primarily from disease-causing microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses. Various chemical agents are a threat, such as nerve gas ( VX , Sarin , and so on.). Mitigation

1312-428: Is assigned to gain detailed information about enemy forces within the zone, or when the enemy situation is vague by which the information concerning cross-country traffic-ability is desired. The reconnaissance provides the commander with a detailed picture of how the enemy has occupied the zone, enabling him to choose the appropriate course-of-action. As the platoon conducts this type of zone reconnaissance, its emphasis

1394-445: Is characterised by a number of terms, each of which has its own specific shade of meaning, such as crisis management , emergency management , emergency preparedness , contingency planning , civil contingency , civil aid and civil protection . Some countries treat civil defense as a key part of defense in general. For example, total defence refers to the commitment of a wide range of national resources to defense, including

1476-597: Is currently widely used within the European Union to refer to government-approved systems and resources tasked with protecting the non-combat population, primarily in the event of natural and technological disasters. For example, the EU's humanitarian aid policy director on the Ebola Crisis, Florika Fink-Hooijer , said that civil protection requires "not just more resources, but first and foremost better governance of

1558-1051: Is derived from the Middle French word reconoissance . Reconnaissance conducted by ground forces includes special reconnaissance , armored reconnaissance , amphibious reconnaissance and civil reconnaissance. Aerial reconnaissance is reconnaissance carried out by aircraft (of all types including balloons and uncrewed aircraft). The purpose is to survey weather conditions, map terrain, and may include military purposes such as observing tangible structures, particular areas, and movement of enemy forces. Naval forces use aerial and satellite reconnaissance to observe enemy forces. Navies also undertake hydrographic surveys and intelligence gathering . Reconnaissance satellites provide military commanders with photographs of enemy forces and other intelligence. Military forces also use geographical and meteorological information from Earth observation satellites . Types of reconnaissance: The techniques and objectives are not mutually exclusive; it

1640-408: Is different from reconnaissance, because spies work as civilians in enemy territory. Reconnaissance is a mission to obtain information by visual observation or other detection methods, about the activities and resources of an enemy or potential enemy, or about the meteorologic, hydrographic, or geographic characteristics of a particular area. Reconnaissance (US Army FM 7-92; Chap. 4) The word

1722-402: Is imperative that a scout should know the history, tradition, religion, social customs, and superstitions of whatever country or people he is called on to work in or among. This is almost as necessary as to know the physical character of the country, its climate and products. Certain people will do certain things almost without fail. Certain other things, perfectly feasible, they will not do. There

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1804-528: Is on determining the enemy's locations, strengths, and weaknesses. This is the most thorough and complete reconnaissance mission and therefore is very time-intensive. A tracker needs to pay close attention to both the environment and the psychology of their enemy. Knowledge of human psychology, sociology, and cultural backgrounds is necessary to know the actions of the enemy and what they will do or where they will go next. Chief of Scouts Frederick Russell Burnham commented on reconnaissance and scouts, saying: It

1886-448: Is oriented on a given route (e.g., a road, a railway, a waterway; i.e., a narrow axis or a general direction of attack) to provide information on route conditions or activities along the route. A military commander relies on information about locations along his determined route: which of those that would provide best cover and concealment; bridge by construction type, dimensions, and classification; or for landing zones or pickup zones, if

1968-456: Is the process of actively preventing war or the release of nuclear weapons . It includes policy analysis, diplomacy, political measures, nuclear disarmament and more military responses such as a National Missile Defense and air defense artillery . In the case of counter-terrorism, mitigation would include diplomacy, intelligence gathering and direct action against terrorist groups. Mitigation may also be reflected in long-term planning such as

2050-530: Is the process of gathering a broad spectrum of civil information about a specific population in support of military operations. It is related to and often performed in conjunction with infrastructure reconnaissance (assessment and survey). Normally the focus of collection in the operational area for civil reconnaissance is collecting civil information relating to the daily interaction between civilians and military forces. Civil information encompasses relational, temporal, geospatial and behavioral information captured in

2132-428: Is the responsibility of the volunteer-based State Emergency Service . In most former Soviet countries civil defense is the responsibility of governmental ministries, such as Russia's Ministry of Emergency Situations . Relatively small investments in preparation can speed up recovery by months or years and thereby prevent millions of deaths by hunger, cold and disease. According to human capital theory in economics ,

2214-425: Is to obtain potassium iodide (KI) tablets as a safety measure to protect the human thyroid gland from the uptake of dangerous radioactive iodine . Another measure is to cover the nose, mouth and eyes with a piece of cloth and sunglasses to protect against alpha particles , which are only an internal hazard. To support and supplement efforts at national, regional and local level with regard to disaster prevention,

2296-579: Is up to the commander whether they are carried out separately or by the same unit. Reconnaissance-in-force (RIF) is a type of military operation or military tactic used specifically to probe an enemy's combat ability. While typical reconnaissance forces are small and armed only for self-defense, RIF use considerable (but not decisive) force in order to elicit a strong reaction by the enemy that more accurately reveals its own strength, deployment, preparedness, determination, and other tactical data. The RIF units can then fall back and report this data, or expand

2378-660: The Air Force . The Coast Guard Auxiliary performs a similar role in support of the U.S. Coast Guard . Like the Civil Air Patrol, the Coast Guard Auxiliary was established in the run up to World War II. Auxiliarists were sometimes armed during the war, and extensively participated in port security operations. After the war, the Auxiliary shifted its focus to promoting boating safety and assisting

2460-552: The Disaster Relief Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-288). In the portions of the civil defense statute incorporated into the Stafford Act, the primary modification was to use the term "Emergency Preparedness" wherever the term "Civil Defence" had previously appeared in the statutory language. An important concept initiated by President Jimmy Carter was the so-called "Crisis Relocation Program" administered as part of

2542-535: The Gotha bombers surpassed the zeppelins. The most devastating raids inflicted 121 casualties for each ton of bombs dropped; this figure was then used as a basis for predictions. After the war, attention was turned toward civil defense in the event of war, and the Air Raid Precautions Committee (ARP) was established in 1924 to investigate ways for ensuring the protection of civilians from

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2624-660: The National Fire Service (NFS)), fire watchers, rescue, first aid post, stretcher party and industry. Over 1.9 million people served within the CD; nearly 2,400 died from enemy action. The organization of civil defense was the responsibility of the local authority. Volunteers were ascribed to different units depending on experience or training. Each local civil defense service was divided into several sections. Wardens were responsible for local reconnaissance and reporting, and leadership, organization, guidance and control of

2706-854: The United States , the Office of Civilian Defense was established in May 1941 to coordinate civilian defense efforts. It coordinated with the Department of the Army and established similar groups to the British ARP. One of these groups that still exists today is the Civil Air Patrol , which was originally created as a civilian auxiliary to the Army . The CAP was created on December 1, 1941, with

2788-563: The United States , the sheer power of nuclear weapons and the perceived likelihood of such an attack precipitated a greater response than had yet been required of civil defense. Civil defense, previously considered an important and commonsense step, became divisive and controversial in the charged atmosphere of the Cold War . In 1950, the National Security Resources Board created a 162-page document outlining

2870-526: The flash ." Booklets such as Survival Under Atomic Attack , Fallout Protection and Nuclear War Survival Skills were also commonplace. The transcribed radio program Stars for Defense combined hit music with civil defense advice. Government institutes created public service announcements including children's songs and distributed them to radio stations to educate the public in case of nuclear attack. The US President Kennedy (1961–63) launched an ambitious effort to install fallout shelters throughout

2952-418: The infection in various extreme situations, including local wars and armed conflicts , the ways of the infection transfer and all factors promoting to the infestation . After the armed forces have become stationary during wartime and emergency of peacetime the sanitary epidemiological reconnaissance turns into sanitary and epidemiological surveillance and medical control of vital and communal activity of

3034-560: The preparedness of those responsible for civil protection and the intervention in the event of disaster Reconnaissance The types of reconnaissance include patrolling the local area of operations and long-range reconnaissance patrols , which are tasks usually realized in the United States of America by U.S. Army Rangers , cavalry scouts , and military intelligence specialists, using navy ships and submarines , reconnaissance aircraft , satellites to collect raw intelligence; and establishing observation posts . Moreover, espionage

3116-418: The 1920s and were implemented in some countries during the 1930s as the threat of war and aerial bombardment grew. Civil-defense structures became widespread after authorities recognised the threats posed by nuclear weapons . Since the end of the Cold War , the focus of civil defense has largely shifted from responding to military attack to dealing with emergencies and disasters in general. The new concept

3198-517: The Coast Guard in performing search and rescue and marine safety and environmental protection. In the United States a federal civil defense program existed under Public Law 920 of the 81st Congress, as amended, from 1951 to 1994. That statutory scheme was made so-called all-hazards by Public Law 103–160 in 1993 and largely repealed by Public Law 103–337 in 1994. Parts now appear in Title VI of

3280-544: The N. W. Ayer Advertising Agency, it was used throughout World War II and the Cold War era. In the U.S., 2006 saw the retirement of the old triangle logo, to be replaced with a stylised EM (for emergency management ). A reference to the old CD logo (without the red CD letters) can be seen above the eagle's head in the FEMA seal. The name and logo continue to be used by Hawaii State Civil Defense and Guam Homeland Security/Office of Civil Defense. The term "civil protection"

3362-620: The Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act, Public Law 100-107 [1988 as amended]. The term EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS was largely codified by that repeal and amendment. See 42 USC Sections 5101 and following. In most of the states of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization , such as the United States , the United Kingdom and West Germany , as well as the Soviet Bloc , and especially in

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3444-492: The United States, the federal civil defense program was authorized by statute and ran from 1951 to 1994. Originally authorized by Public Law 920 of the 81st Congress, it was repealed by Public Law 93–337 in 1994. Small portions of that statutory scheme were incorporated into the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (Public Law 100–707) which partly superseded in part, partly amended, and partly supplemented

3526-409: The United States. These shelters would not protect against the blast and heat effects of nuclear weapons, but would provide some protection against the radiation effects that would last for weeks and even affect areas distant from a nuclear explosion. In order for most of these preparations to be effective, there had to be some degree of warning. In 1951, CONELRAD (Control of Electromagnetic Radiation)

3608-417: The armed forces. Area reconnaissance refers to the observation, and information obtained, about a specified location and the area around it; it may be terrain-oriented and/or force-oriented. Ideally, a reconnaissance platoon, or team, would use surveillance or vantage (static) points around the objective to observe, and the surrounding area. This methodology focuses mainly prior to moving forces into or near

3690-567: The city with 120,000 troops to force people back to work. A different government department proposed setting up camps for refugees for a few days before sending them back to London. A special government department, the Civil Defence Service , was established by the Home Office in 1935. Its remit included the pre-existing ARP as well as wardens, firemen (initially the Auxiliary Fire Service (AFS) and latterly

3772-435: The conflict into a full engagement if enemy weaknesses are revealed. Other methods consist of hit-and-run tactics using rapid mobility, and in some cases light-armored vehicles for added fire superiority, as the need arises. Maintaining active RIF can be used to limit, or even deny, enemy reconnaissance. Nazi Germany's reconnaissance during World War II is described in the following way: The purpose of reconnaissance and

3854-402: The councillors had decided that hydrogen bombs meant that there could be no recovery from a nuclear attack. The British government opposed such a move and held a provocative Civil Defence exercise on the streets of Coventry which Labour council members protested against. The government also decided to implement its own committee at the city's cost until the council reinstituted its committee. In

3936-707: The crisis, the British Government decided to make these a permanent feature, with a standard design of precast concrete trench lining. They also decided to issue the Anderson shelter free to poorer households and to provide steel props to create shelters in suitable basements. During the Second World War , the ARP was responsible for the issuing of gas masks , pre-fabricated air-raid shelters (such as Anderson shelters , as well as Morrison shelters ),

4018-556: The danger of air-raids . The Committee produced figures estimating that in London there would be 9,000 casualties in the first two days and then a continuing rate of 17,500 casualties a week. These rates were thought conservative. It was believed that there would be "total chaos and panic" and hysterical neurosis as the people of London would try to flee the city. To control the population harsh measures were proposed: bringing London under almost military control, and physically cordoning off

4100-426: The design of the interstate highway system and the placement of military bases further away from populated areas. Preparation consists of building blast shelters and pre-positioning information, supplies, and emergency infrastructure. For example, most larger cities in the U.S. now have underground emergency operations centers that can perform civil defense coordination. FEMA also has many underground facilities for

4182-443: The effects of nuclear weapon strikes on its territory, and therefore spent considerably more thought on civil defense preparations than in U.S., with defense plans that have been assessed to be far more effective than those in the U.S. Soviet Civil Defense Troops played the main role in the massive disaster relief operation following the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear accident . Defense Troop reservists were officially mobilized (as in

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4264-425: The enemy force to reveal their location by moving or by returning fire. Reconnaissance-pull is a tactic that is applied at the regiment to division level and defined as locating and rapidly exploiting enemy weaknesses. It is the ability to determine enemy positions and create exploitable gaps through which friendly forces can pass while avoiding obstacles and strong points. A textbook example of reconnaissance-pull

4346-400: The environment , with a number of the 56 deaths from the accident being Civil defense troops. In Western countries, strong civil defense policies were never properly implemented, because it was fundamentally at odds with the doctrine of " mutual assured destruction " (MAD) by making provisions for survivors. It was also considered that a full-fledged total defense would have not been worth

4428-954: The federal civil defense program. That effort largely lapsed under President Ronald Reagan, who discontinued the Carter initiative because of opposition from areas potentially hosting the relocated population. Threats to civilians and civilian life include NBC ( Nuclear , Biological , and Chemical warfare ) and others, like the more modern term CBRN (Chemical Biological Radiological and Nuclear). Threat assessment involves studying each threat so that preventative measures can be built into civilian life. Refers to conventional explosives. A blast shelter designed to protect only from radiation and fallout would be much more vulnerable to conventional explosives. See also fallout shelter . Shelter intended to protect against nuclear blast effects would include thick concrete and other sturdy elements which are resistant to conventional explosives. The biggest threats from

4510-550: The financial crisis of the mid-1960s. Its neighbors, however, remained committed to Civil Defence, namely the Isle of Man Civil Defence Corps and Civil Defence Ireland (Republic of Ireland). In the United States, the various civil defense agencies were replaced with the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) in 1979. In 2002 this became part of the Department of Homeland Security . The focus

4592-422: The following techniques may be used as long as the fundamentals of reconnaissance are applied. Scouts may also have different tasks to perform for their commanders of higher echelons, for example: the engineer reconnaissance detachments will try to identify difficult terrain in the path of their formation, and attempt to reduce the time it takes to transit the terrain using specialist engineering equipment such as

4674-599: The force from becoming surprised. It is paramount to obtain information about the available space in which a force can maneuver without being forced to bunch up due to obstacles. Terrain-oriented route reconnaissance allows the commander to obtain information and capabilities about the adjacent terrain for maneuvering his forces, to include, any obstacles (minefields, barriers, steep ravines, marshy areas, or chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear contamination) that may obstruct vehicle movement—on routes to, and in, his assigned area of operations. This requirement includes

4756-423: The general public. Wardens would also advise survivors of the locations of rest and food centers, and other welfare facilities. Rescue Parties were required to assess and then access bombed-out buildings and retrieve injured or dead people. In addition they would turn off gas , electricity and water supplies , and repair or pull down unsteady buildings. Medical services, including First Aid Parties, provided on

4838-482: The late 1950s early 1960s, it was estimated that approximately 27 million US citizens would have been saved with civil defense education. At the time, however, the cost of a full-scale civil defense program was regarded as less effective in cost-benefit analysis than a ballistic missile defense ( Nike Zeus ) system, and as the Soviet adversary was increasing their nuclear stockpile , the efficacy of both would follow

4920-412: The main civil defense mission of search and rescue. The CAP also sank two Axis submarines and provided aerial reconnaissance for Allied and neutral merchant ships. In 1946, the Civil Air Patrol was barred from combat by Public Law 79-476 . The CAP then received its current mission: search and rescue for downed aircraft. When the Air Force was created, in 1947, the Civil Air Patrol became the auxiliary of

5002-429: The need arises. In many cases, the commander may act upon a force-oriented route reconnaissance by which the enemy could influence movement along that route. For the reconnaissance platoons, or squads, stealth and speed—in conjunction with detailed intelligence-reporting—are most important and crucial. The reconnaissance platoon must remain far enough ahead of the maneuver force to assist in early warning and to prevent

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5084-453: The neutral countries, such as Switzerland and in Sweden during the 1950s and 1960s, many civil defense practices took place to prepare for the aftermath of a nuclear war , which seemed quite likely at that time. In the United Kingdom , the Civil Defence Service was disbanded in 1945, followed by the ARP in 1946. With the onset of the growing tensions between East and West , the service

5166-423: The original force meets strong enemy opposition, or when the direction and area to be reconnoitred are changed. The Germans encourage aggressive action against enemy security forces. When their reconnaissance units meet superior enemy forces, they fight a delaying action while other units attempt to flank the enemy. Reconnaissance-by-fire (or speculative fire ) is the act of firing at likely enemy positions to cause

5248-676: The protection of all aspects of civilian life. The advent of civil defense was stimulated by the experience of the bombing of civilian areas during the First World War . The bombing of the United Kingdom began on 19 January 1915 when German zeppelins dropped bombs on the Great Yarmouth area, killing six people. German bombing operations of the First World War were surprisingly effective, especially after

5330-455: The reconnaissance on the specific area that is critical to the commander. This technique of focusing the reconnaissance also permits the mission to be accomplished more quickly. Area reconnaissance can thus be a stand-alone mission or a task to a section or the platoon. The commander analyzes the mission to determine whether the platoon will conduct these types of reconnaissance separately or in conjunction with each other. Civil reconnaissance

5412-423: The resources that are available including better synergies between humanitarian aid and civil protection". In recent years there has been emphasis on preparedness for technological disasters resulting from terrorist attack. Within EU countries the term "crisis-management" emphasizes the political and security dimension rather than measures to satisfy the immediate needs of the population. In Australia, civil defense

5494-908: The same purpose located near major railheads such as the ones in Denton, Texas and Mount Weather , Virginia. Other measures would include continual government inventories of grain silos, the Strategic National Stockpile , the uncapping of the Strategic Petroleum Reserve , the dispersal of lorry-transportable bridges, water purification, mobile refineries, mobile de-contamination facilities, mobile general and special purpose disaster mortuary facilities such as Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Team (DMORT) and DMORT-WMD , and other aids such as temporary housing to speed civil recovery. On an individual scale, one means of preparation for exposure to nuclear fallout

5576-729: The size of trees and the density of forests due to their effects on vehicle movement. Route reconnaissance also allows the observation for fields of fire along the route and adjacent terrain. This information assists planners as a supplement to map information. Zone reconnaissance focuses on obtaining detailed information before maneuvering their forces through particular, designated locations. It can be terrain-oriented, force-oriented, or both, as it acquire this information by reconnoitering within—and by maintaining surveillance over—routes, obstacles (to include nuclear-radiological, biological, and chemical contamination), and resources within an assigned location. Also, force-oriented zone reconnaissance

5658-477: The south-west which were more favorable for an amphibious landing. American forces quickly changed their landing location to the northern beaches and planned a small and hasty " deception " operation off the southern beach, which resulted in a complete surprise for the Japanese forces. As a result, American forces were able to fight the Japanese force on land, where they had the advantage, leading to light losses and

5740-477: The spot medical assistance. The expected stream of information that would be generated during an attack was handled by 'Report and Control' teams. A local headquarters would have an ARP controller who would direct rescue, first aid and decontamination teams to the scenes of reported bombing. If local services were deemed insufficient to deal with the incident then the controller could request assistance from surrounding boroughs . Fire Guards were responsible for

5822-463: The types of units employed to obtain information are similar in the U.S. and the German Armies. German tactical principles of reconnaissance, however, diverge somewhat from those of the U.S. The Germans stress aggressiveness, attempt to obtain superiority in the area to be reconnoitered, and strive for continuous observation of the enemy. They believe in employing reconnaissance units in force as

5904-445: The upkeep of local public shelters, and the maintenance of the blackout . The ARP also helped rescue people after air raids and other attacks, and some women became ARP Ambulance Attendants whose job was to help administer first aid to casualties, search for survivors, and in many grim instances, help recover bodies, sometimes those of their own colleagues. As the war progressed, the military effectiveness of Germany's aerial bombardment

5986-488: The very large expense. For whatever reason, the public saw efforts at civil defense as fundamentally ineffective against the powerful destructive forces of nuclear weapons, and therefore a waste of time and money, although detailed scientific research programs did underlie the much-mocked government civil defense pamphlets of the 1950s and 1960s. The Civil Defence Corps was stood down in Great Britain in 1968 due to

6068-615: Was a Corps Authority, as were most county boroughs in England and Wales and large burghs in Scotland . Each division was divided into several sections, including the Headquarters, Intelligence and Operations, Scientific and Reconnaissance, Warden & Rescue, Ambulance and First Aid and Welfare. In 1954 Coventry City Council caused international controversy when it announced plans to disband its Civil Defence committee because

6150-541: Was documented during the Tinian landings of World War II , utilized by the United States Marine Corps 's Amphibious Reconnaissance Battalion , from V Amphibious Corps . Aerial photography and the confirmation by the amphibious reconnaissance platoons determined that the Japanese defenders had largely ignored the northern beaches of the island, focusing most of their defensive effort on beaches in

6232-412: Was established. Under the system, a few primary stations would be alerted of an emergency and would broadcast an alert. All broadcast stations throughout the country would be constantly listening to an upstream station and repeat the message, thus passing it from station to station. In a once classified US war game analysis, looking at varying levels of war escalation, warning and pre-emptive attacks in

6314-479: Was lower than the earlier 121 casualties per ton prediction. However, in comparison, Allied strategic bombing of Germany during the war proved slightly less lethal than what was observed in the UK, with an estimated 400,000-600,000 German civilian fatalities for approximately 1.35 million tons of bombs dropped on Germany, an estimated resulting rate therefore of 0.30-0.44 civilian fatalities per ton of bombs dropped. In

6396-548: Was made over the issue of air-raid shelters , because of the apparently irreconcilable conflict between the need to send the public underground for shelter and the need to keep them above ground for protection against gas attacks. In February 1936 the Home Secretary appointed a technical Committee on Structural Precautions against Air Attack. During the Munich crisis , local authorities dug trenches to provide shelter. After

6478-477: Was revived in 1949 as the Civil Defence Corps . As a civilian volunteer organization, it was tasked to take control in the aftermath of a major national emergency, principally envisaged as being a Cold War nuclear attack . Although under the authority of the Home Office , with a centralized administrative establishment, the corps was administered locally by Corps Authorities. In general every county

6560-413: Was shifted from nuclear war to an "all-hazards" approach of comprehensive emergency management . Natural disasters and the emergence of new threats such as terrorism have caused attention to be focused away from traditional civil defense and into new forms of civil protection such as emergency management and homeland security . Many countries maintain a national Civil Defence Corps, usually having

6642-623: Was the Director-General of Civil Defence, also known as the Inspector-General. Senior officials: Civil defence Civil defense or civil protection is an effort to protect the citizens of a state (generally non-combatants ) from human-made and natural disasters . It uses the principles of emergency management : prevention , mitigation, preparation, response, or emergency evacuation and recovery. Programs of this sort were initially discussed at least as early as

6724-726: Was very limited. Thanks to the Luftwaffe's shifting aims, the strength of British air defenses, the use of early warning radar in combination with the Royal Observer Corps , and the life-saving actions of local civil defense units, the aerial "Blitz" during the Battle of Britain failed to break the morale of the British people, destroy the Royal Air Force or significantly hinder British industrial production. Despite

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