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74-516: Around 38 species; see § Species Cinchona (pronounced / s ɪ ŋ ˈ k oʊ n ə / or / s ɪ n ˈ tʃ oʊ n ə / ) is a genus of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae containing at least 23 species of trees and shrubs. All are native to the tropical Andean forests of western South America . A few species are reportedly naturalized in Central America , Jamaica , French Polynesia , Sulawesi , Saint Helena in

148-607: A correction of the spelling to Chinchona , and some prefer the pronunciation / tʃ ɪ n ˈ tʃ oʊ n ə / for the common name of the plant. Traditional medicine uses from South America known as Jesuit's bark and Jesuit's powder have been traced to Cinchona . Cinchona plants belong to the family Rubiaceae and are large shrubs or small trees with evergreen foliage, growing 5 to 15 m (16 to 49 ft) in height. The leaves are opposite, rounded to lanceolate, and 10–40 cm long. The flowers are white, pink, or red, and produced in terminal panicles . The fruit

222-724: A dark-coloured phlobaphene called red cinchonic, cinchono-fulvic acid, or cinchona red. In 1934, efforts to make malaria drugs cheap and effective for use across countries led to the development of a standard called "totaquina" proposed by the Malaria Commission of the League of Nations . Totaquina required a minimum of 70% crystallizable alkaloids, of which at least 15% was to be quinine with not more than 20% amorphous alkaloids. There are at least 24 species of Cinchona recognized by botanists. There are likely several unnamed species and many intermediate forms that have arisen due to

296-784: A drug that is still recommended for the treatment of falciparum malaria . Italian botanist Pietro Castelli wrote a pamphlet noteworthy as being the first Italian publication to mention the Cinchona species. By the 1630s (or 1640s, depending on the reference), the bark was being exported to Europe. In the late 1640s, the method of use of the bark was noted in the Schedula Romana . The Royal Society of London published in its first year (1666) "An account of Dr. Sydenham's book, entitled, Methodus curandi febres . . ." English King Charles II called upon Robert Talbor, who had become famous for his miraculous malaria cure. Because at that time

370-651: A later homonym of a validly published name is a nomen illegitimum or nom. illeg. ; for a full list refer to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and the work cited above by Hawksworth, 2010. In place of the "valid taxon" in zoology, the nearest equivalent in botany is " correct name " or "current name" which can, again, differ or change with alternative taxonomic treatments or new information that results in previously accepted genera being combined or split. Prokaryote and virus codes of nomenclature also exist which serve as

444-628: A long time and redescribed as new by a range of subsequent workers, or if a range of genera previously considered separate taxa have subsequently been consolidated into one. For example, the World Register of Marine Species presently lists 8 genus-level synonyms for the sperm whale genus Physeter Linnaeus, 1758, and 13 for the bivalve genus Pecten O.F. Müller, 1776. Within the same kingdom, one generic name can apply to one genus only. However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera. For example,

518-584: A new chapter in international relations between the United States and other nations in the Americas . The bark of trees in this genus is the source of a variety of alkaloids , the most familiar of which is quinine , an antipyretic (antifever) agent especially useful in treating malaria. For a while the extraction of a mixture of alkaloids from the cinchona bark, known in India as the cinchona febrifuge,

592-409: A reference for designating currently accepted genus names as opposed to others which may be either reduced to synonymy, or, in the case of prokaryotes, relegated to a status of "names without standing in prokaryotic nomenclature". An available (zoological) or validly published (botanical) name that has been historically applied to a genus but is not regarded as the accepted (current/valid) name for

666-486: A routine in quinology to examine the contents of these components in assays. The yields of quinine in the cultivated trees were low and time was needed to develop sustainable methods to extract bark. In the meantime, Charles Ledger and his native assistant Manuel Incra Mamani collected another species from Bolivia. Mamani was caught and beaten by Bolivian officials, leading to his death, but Ledger obtained seeds containing high levels of quinine. These seeds were offered to

740-427: A taxon; however, the names published in suppressed works are made unavailable via the relevant Opinion dealing with the work in question. In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels. The botanical equivalent of zoology's "available name" is a validly published name . An invalidly published name is a nomen invalidum or nom. inval. ; a rejected name is a nomen rejiciendum or nom. rej. ;

814-455: A total of c. 520,000 published names (including synonyms) as at end 2019, increasing at some 2,500 published generic names per year. "Official" registers of taxon names at all ranks, including genera, exist for a few groups only such as viruses and prokaryotes, while for others there are compendia with no "official" standing such as Index Fungorum for fungi, Index Nominum Algarum and AlgaeBase for algae, Index Nominum Genericorum and

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888-797: A wave took them off their ship. The Dutch sent Justus Hasskarl , who brought plants that were then cultivated in Java from 1854. English explorer Clements Markham went to collect plants that were introduced in Sri Lanka and the Nilgiris of southern India in 1860. The main species introduced were C. succirubra , or red bark, (now C. pubescens ) as its sap turned red on contact with air, and Cinchona calisaya . The alkaloids quinine and cinchonine were extracted by Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaimé Caventou in 1820. Two more key alkaloids, quinidine and cinchonidine, were later identified and it became

962-414: Is a small capsule containing numerous seeds . A key character of the genus is that the flowers have marginally hairy corolla lobes. Some species display heterostyly . The tribe Cinchoneae includes the genera Cinchonopsis , Jossia , Ladenbergia , Remijia , Stilpnophyllum , and Ciliosemina . In South America, natural populations of Cinchona species have geographically distinct distributions. During

1036-612: Is discouraged by both the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants , there are some five thousand such names in use in more than one kingdom. For instance, A list of generic homonyms (with their authorities), including both available (validly published) and selected unavailable names, has been compiled by the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG). The type genus forms

1110-445: Is more effective than acetaminophen in children at similar doses when both are given alone. Due to concerns about Reye syndrome , it is recommended that aspirin and combination products that contain aspirin not be given to children or teenagers during episodes of fever-causing illnesses. Traditional use of vascular plants with antipyretic properties is a common worldwide feature of many ethnobotanical cultures. In ethnobotany,

1184-405: Is not an appropriate cooling method, because there have been reported adverse events associated with systemic absorption of alcohol. The list of medications with antipyretic effects includes many common drugs that also have analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity, several of which are commonly sold over-the-counter (OTC). The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) notes that improper dosing

1258-413: Is one of the biggest problems in giving acetaminophen (paracetamol) to children. The effectiveness of acetaminophen alone as an antipyretic in children is uncertain, with some evidence showing it is no better than physical methods. Therapies involving alternating doses of acetaminophen and ibuprofen have shown greater antipyretic effect than either drug alone. One meta-analysis indicated that ibuprofen

1332-470: Is seventeen dollars the mule load of three quintals. Six thousand quintals of bark have already been gathered from Yuracares. The bank was established in the year 1851. Mr. [Thaddäus] Haenke mentioned the existence of cinchona bark on his visit to Yuracares in 1796 It was estimated that the British Empire incurred direct losses of 52 to 62 million pounds a year due to malaria sickness each year. It

1406-540: Is some debate over the appropriate use of such medications, since fever is part of the body's immune response to infection. A study published by the Royal Society claims that fever suppression causes at least 1% more influenza deaths in the United States, or 700 extra deaths per year. Bathing or sponging with lukewarm or cool water can effectively reduce body temperature in those with heat illness , but not usually in those with fever. The use of alcohol baths

1480-460: Is somewhat arbitrary. Although all species within a genus are supposed to be "similar", there are no objective criteria for grouping species into genera. There is much debate among zoologists about whether enormous, species-rich genera should be maintained, as it is extremely difficult to come up with identification keys or even character sets that distinguish all species. Hence, many taxonomists argue in favor of breaking down large genera. For instance,

1554-474: Is the type species , and the generic name is permanently associated with the type specimen of its type species. Should the specimen turn out to be assignable to another genus, the generic name linked to it becomes a junior synonym and the remaining taxa in the former genus need to be reassessed. In zoological usage, taxonomic names, including those of genera, are classified as "available" or "unavailable". Available names are those published in accordance with

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1628-621: The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ; the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the " valid " (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question. Consequently, there will be more available names than valid names at any point in time; which names are currently in use depending on the judgement of taxonomists in either combining taxa described under multiple names, or splitting taxa which may bring available names previously treated as synonyms back into use. "Unavailable" names in zoology comprise names that either were not published according to

1702-824: The International Plant Names Index for plants in general, and ferns through angiosperms, respectively, and Nomenclator Zoologicus and the Index to Organism Names for zoological names. Totals for both "all names" and estimates for "accepted names" as held in the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG) are broken down further in the publication by Rees et al., 2020 cited above. The accepted names estimates are as follows, broken down by kingdom: The cited ranges of uncertainty arise because IRMNG lists "uncertain" names (not researched therein) in addition to known "accepted" names;

1776-601: The South Atlantic , and São Tomé and Príncipe off the coast of tropical Africa, and others have been cultivated in India and Java , where they have formed hybrids. Cinchona has been historically sought after for its medicinal value, as the bark of several species yields quinine and other alkaloids . These were the only effective treatments against malaria during the height of European colonialism , which made them of great economic and political importance. Trees in

1850-650: The national tree of Peru is in the genus Cinchona . Carl Linnaeus named the genus in 1742, based on a claim that the plant had cured the wife of the Count of Chinchón , a Spanish viceroy in Lima , in the 1630s, though the veracity of this story has been disputed. Linnaeus used the Italian spelling Cinchona , but the name Chinchón (pronounced [tʃinˈtʃon] in Spanish) led to Clements Markham and others proposing

1924-419: The nomenclature codes , which allow each species a single unique name that, for animals (including protists ), plants (also including algae and fungi ) and prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ), is Latin and binomial in form; this contrasts with common or vernacular names , which are non-standardized, can be non-unique, and typically also vary by country and language of usage. Except for viruses ,

1998-404: The platypus belongs to the genus Ornithorhynchus although George Shaw named it Platypus in 1799 (these two names are thus synonyms ) . However, the name Platypus had already been given to a group of ambrosia beetles by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1793. A name that means two different things is a homonym . Since beetles and platypuses are both members of the kingdom Animalia,

2072-434: The "Imperial Commissioner of Immigration" for Emperor Maximillian of Mexico, and Archduke of Habsburg. All that survives of those two colonies are the flourishing groves of cinchonas established by Maury using seeds purchased from England. These seeds were the first to be introduced into Mexico. The cultivation of cinchona led from the 1890s to a decline in the price of quinine, but the quality and production of raw bark by

2146-532: The "fever tree" in 1653. The legend was popularized in English literature by Markham, and in 1874, he also published a "plea for the correct spelling of the genus Chinchona ". Spanish physician and botanist Nicolás Monardes wrote of a New World bark powder used in Spain in 1574, and another physician, Juan Fragoso, wrote of bark powder from an unknown tree in 1600 that was used for treating various ills. Both identify

2220-422: The 19th century, the introduction of several species into cultivation in the same areas of India and Java, by the English and Dutch East India Company, respectively, led to the formation of hybrids . Linnaeus described the genus based on the species Cinchona officinalis , which is found only in a small region of Ecuador and is of little medicinal significance. Nearly 300 species were later described and named in

2294-655: The British, who were uninterested, leading to the rest being sold to the Dutch. The Dutch saw their value and multiplied the stock. The species later named Cinchona ledgeriana yielded 8 to 13% quinine in bark grown in Dutch Indonesia, which effectively outcompeted the British Indian production which focused on a range of alkaloids other than quinine. Only later did the English see the value and sought to obtain

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2368-637: The Dutch in Indonesia led them to dominate world markets. The producers of processed drugs in Europe (especially Germany), however, bargained and caused fluctuations in prices, which led to a Dutch-led Cinchona Agreement in 1913 that ensured a fixed price for producers. A Kina Bureau in Amsterdam regulated this trade. During World War II , the Japanese conquered Java and the United States lost access to

2442-584: The Nilgiris and at Mungpoo , Darjeeling, West Bengal. Quinologists were appointed to oversee the extraction of alkaloids with John Broughton in the Nilgiris and C.H. Wood at Darjeeling. Others in the position included David Hooper and John Eliot Howard. In 1865, "New Virginia" and "Carlota Colony" were established in Mexico by Matthew Fontaine Maury , a former Confederate in the American Civil War . Postwar Confederates were enticed there by Maury, now

2516-520: The Viceroy of Nueva Granada, Pedro Messia de la Cerda, gathered information on cinchona in Colombia from 1760 and wrote a manuscript, El Arcano de la Quina (1793), with illustrations. He proposed a Spanish expedition to search for plants of commercial value, which was approved in 1783 and was continued after his death in 1808 by his nephew Sinforoso Mutis. As demand for the bark increased, the trees in

2590-405: The bark in the 18th century is captured by Lardner Gibbon: ... this bark was first gathered in quantities in 1849, though known for many years. The best quality is not quite equal to that of Yungas, but only second to it. There are four other classes of inferior bark, for some of which the bank pays fifteen dollars per quintal. The best, by law, is worth fifty-four dollars. The freight to Arica

2664-460: The bark was in religious controversy, Talbor gave the king the bitter bark decoction in great secrecy. The treatment gave the king complete relief from the malaria fever. In return, Talbor was offered membership of the prestigious Royal College of Physicians . In 1679, Talbor was called by the King of France, Louis XIV , whose son was suffering from malarial fever. After a successful treatment, Talbor

2738-442: The base for higher taxonomic ranks, such as the family name Canidae ("Canids") based on Canis . However, this does not typically ascend more than one or two levels: the order to which dogs and wolves belong is Carnivora ("Carnivores"). The numbers of either accepted, or all published genus names is not known precisely; Rees et al., 2020 estimate that approximately 310,000 accepted names (valid taxa) may exist, out of

2812-439: The cinchona plantations that supplied war-critical quinine medication. Botanical expeditions called Cinchona Missions were launched between 1942 and 1944 to explore promising areas of South America in an effort to locate cinchona species that contained quinine and could be harvested for quinine production. As well as being ultimately successful in their primary aim, these expeditions also identified new species of plants and created

2886-535: The countess suffering from fever, although the count himself had many malarial attacks. Because of these and numerous other discrepancies, Bado's story has been generally rejected as little more than a legend. Quina bark was mentioned by Fray Antonio de La Calancha in 1638 as coming from a tree in Loja (Loxa). He noted that bark powder weighing about two coins was cast into water and drunk to cure fevers and "tertians". Jesuit Father Bernabé Cobo (1582–1657) also wrote on

2960-454: The ethanol in wine. In 1681 Água de Inglaterra was introduced into Portugal from England by Dr. Fernando Mendes who, similarly, "received a handsome gift from ( King Pedro ) on condition that he should reveal to him the secret of its composition and withhold it from the public". In 1738, Sur l'arbre du quinquina , a paper written by Charles Marie de La Condamine , lead member of the expedition, along with Pierre Godin and Louis Bouger that

3034-406: The forests began to be destroyed. To maintain their monopoly on cinchona bark, Peru and surrounding countries began outlawing the export of cinchona seeds and saplings beginning in the early 19th century. The colonial European powers eventually considered growing the plant in other parts of the tropics. The French mission of 1743, of which de la Condamine was a member, lost their cinchona plants when

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3108-446: The form "author, year" in zoology, and "standard abbreviated author name" in botany. Thus in the examples above, the genus Canis would be cited in full as " Canis Linnaeus, 1758" (zoological usage), while Hibiscus , also first established by Linnaeus but in 1753, is simply " Hibiscus L." (botanical usage). Each genus should have a designated type , although in practice there is a backlog of older names without one. In zoology, this

3182-737: The generic name (or its abbreviated form) still forms the leading portion of the scientific name, for example, Canis lupus lupus for the Eurasian wolf subspecies, or as a botanical example, Hibiscus arnottianus ssp. immaculatus . Also, as visible in the above examples, the Latinised portions of the scientific names of genera and their included species (and infraspecies, where applicable) are, by convention, written in italics . The scientific names of virus species are descriptive, not binomial in form, and may or may not incorporate an indication of their containing genus; for example,

3256-486: The genus are also known as fever trees because of their antimalarial properties. The artificial synthesis of quinine in 1944, an increase in resistant forms of malaria, and the emergence of alternate therapies eventually ended large-scale economic interest in Cinchona cultivation. Cinchona alkaloids show promise in treating Plasmodium falciparum malaria, which has evolved resistance to synthetic drugs. Cinchona plants continue to be revered for their historical legacy;

3330-531: The genus, but a revision of the genus in 1998 identified only 23 distinct species. The febrifugal properties of bark from trees now known to be in the genus Cinchona were used by many South American cultures prior to European contact. Jesuits played a key role in the transfer of remedies from the New World . The traditional story connecting Cinchona species with malaria treatment was first recorded by Italian physician Sebastiano Bado in 1663. It tells of

3404-633: The largest component, with 23,236 ± 5,379 accepted genus names, of which 20,845 ± 4,494 are angiosperms (superclass Angiospermae). By comparison, the 2018 annual edition of the Catalogue of Life (estimated >90% complete, for extant species in the main) contains currently 175,363 "accepted" genus names for 1,744,204 living and 59,284 extinct species, also including genus names only (no species) for some groups. The number of species in genera varies considerably among taxonomic groups. For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles , which have about 1180 genera,

3478-480: The lizard genus Anolis has been suggested to be broken down into 8 or so different genera which would bring its ~400 species to smaller, more manageable subsets. Antipyretic An antipyretic ( / ˌ æ n t i p aɪ ˈ r ɛ t ɪ k / , from anti- 'against' and pyretic 'feverish') is a substance that reduces fever . Antipyretics cause the hypothalamus to override a prostaglandin -induced increase in temperature . The body then works to lower

3552-403: The most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species. However, some insect genera such as the bee genera Lasioglossum and Andrena have over 1000 species each. The largest flowering plant genus, Astragalus , contains over 3,000 species. Which species are assigned to a genus

3626-428: The name could not be used for both. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach published the replacement name Ornithorhynchus in 1800. However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code. Names with the same form but applying to different taxa are called "homonyms". Although this

3700-551: The pioneer of tea planting in Sri Lanka, was one of the pioneers of cinchona cultivation. By 1883, about 64,000 acres (260 km) were in cultivation in Sri Lanka, with exports reaching a peak of 15 million pounds in 1886. The cultivation (initially of C. succirubra (now C. pubescens ) and later of C. calisaya ) was extended through the work of George King and others into the hilly terrain of Darjeeling District of Bengal . Cinchona factories were established at Naduvattam in

3774-481: The plants' tendency to hybridize . Genus The composition of a genus is determined by taxonomists . The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. There are some general practices used, however, including the idea that a newly defined genus should fulfill these three criteria to be descriptively useful: Moreover, genera should be composed of phylogenetic units of

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3848-541: The provisions of the ICZN Code, e.g., incorrect original or subsequent spellings, names published only in a thesis, and generic names published after 1930 with no type species indicated. According to "Glossary" section of the zoological Code, suppressed names (per published "Opinions" of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature) remain available but cannot be used as the valid name for

3922-470: The same kind as other (analogous) genera. The term "genus" comes from Latin genus , a noun form cognate with gignere ('to bear; to give birth to'). The Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum , but the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708) is considered "the founder of the modern concept of genera". The scientific name (or

3996-408: The scientific epithet) of a genus is also called the generic name ; in modern style guides and science, it is always capitalised. It plays a fundamental role in binomial nomenclature , the system of naming organisms , where it is combined with the scientific name of a species : see Botanical name and Specific name (zoology) . The rules for the scientific names of organisms are laid down in

4070-470: The seeds of C. ledgeriana from the Dutch. Francesco Torti used the response of fevers to treatment with Cinchona as a system of classification of fevers or a means for diagnosis between malarial and non-malarial fevers. Its use in the effective treatment of malaria brought an end to treatment by bloodletting and long-held ideas of humorism from Galen . Clements Markham was knighted for his role in establishing Cinchona species in Indonesia. Hasskarl

4144-605: The sources as trees that do not bear fruit and have heart-shaped leaves; they were suggested to have been referring to Cinchona species. The name quina-quina or quinquina was suggested as an old name for Cinchona used in Europe and based on the native name used by the Quechua people which means 'bark of barks'. Italian sources spelt quina as " cina ", which was a source of confusion with Smilax from China. Haggis argued that qina and Jesuit's bark actually referred to Myroxylon peruiferum , or Peruvian balsam, and that this

4218-497: The specific name particular to the wolf. A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus , a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by subspecies names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany . When the generic name is already known from context, it may be shortened to its initial letter, for example, C. lupus in place of Canis lupus . Where species are further subdivided,

4292-412: The standard format for a species name comprises the generic name, indicating the genus to which the species belongs, followed by the specific epithet, which (within that genus) is unique to the species. For example, the gray wolf 's scientific name is Canis lupus , with Canis ( Latin for 'dog') being the generic name shared by the wolf's close relatives and lupus (Latin for 'wolf') being

4366-403: The taxon is termed a synonym ; some authors also include unavailable names in lists of synonyms as well as available names, such as misspellings, names previously published without fulfilling all of the requirements of the relevant nomenclatural code, and rejected or suppressed names. A particular genus name may have zero to many synonyms, the latter case generally if the genus has been known for

4440-505: The temperature, which results in a reduction in fever. Most antipyretic medications have other purposes. The most common antipyretics in the US are usually ibuprofen and aspirin , which are nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) used primarily as anti-inflammatories and analgesics (pain relievers), but which also have antipyretic properties; and paracetamol (acetaminophen), an analgesic without anti-inflammatory properties. There

4514-576: The values quoted are the mean of "accepted" names alone (all "uncertain" names treated as unaccepted) and "accepted + uncertain" names (all "uncertain" names treated as accepted), with the associated range of uncertainty indicating these two extremes. Within Animalia, the largest phylum is Arthropoda , with 151,697 ± 33,160 accepted genus names, of which 114,387 ± 27,654 are insects (class Insecta). Within Plantae, Tracheophyta (vascular plants) make up

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4588-429: The virus species " Salmonid herpesvirus 1 ", " Salmonid herpesvirus 2 " and " Salmonid herpesvirus 3 " are all within the genus Salmonivirus ; however, the genus to which the species with the formal names " Everglades virus " and " Ross River virus " are assigned is Alphavirus . As with scientific names at other ranks, in all groups other than viruses, names of genera may be cited with their authorities, typically in

4662-409: The wife of Luis Jerónimo de Cabrera, 4th Count of Chinchón and Viceroy of Peru , who fell ill in Lima with a tertian fever. A Spanish governor advised a traditional remedy, which resulted in a miraculous and rapid cure. The countess then supposedly ordered a large quantity of the bark and took it back to Europe. Bado claimed to have received this information from an Italian named Antonius Bollus, who

4736-572: Was a merchant in Peru. Clements Markham identified the countess as Ana de Osorio, but this was shown to be incorrect by Haggis. Ana de Osorio married the Count of Chinchón in August 1621 and died in 1625, several years before the count was appointed viceroy of Peru in 1628. His second wife, Francisca Henriques de Ribera, accompanied him to Peru. Haggis further examined the count's diaries and found no mention of

4810-526: Was an item of importance in Spanish trade in the 1500s. Over time, the bark of Myroxylon may have been adulterated with the similar-looking bark of what is now known as Cinchona . Gradually, the adulterant became the main product that was the key therapeutic ingredient used in malarial therapy. The bark was included as Cortex Peruanus in the London Pharmacopoeia in 1677. The "fever tree"

4884-518: Was finally described carefully by astronomer Charles Marie de la Condamine , who visited Quito in 1735 on a quest to measure an arc of the meridian . The species he described, Cinchona officinalis , however, was found to be of little therapeutic value. The first living plants seen in Europe were C. calisaya plants grown at the Jardin des Plantes from seeds collected by Hugh Algernon Weddell from Bolivia in 1846. José Celestino Mutis , physician to

4958-569: Was knighted with the Dutch order of the Lion. Cinchona species are used as food plants by the larvae of some lepidopteran species, including the engrailed , the commander , and members of the genus Endoclita , including E. damor , E. purpurescens , and E. sericeus . C.pubescens has grown uncontrolled on some islands, such as the Galapagos , where it has posed the risk of outcompeting native plant species. Whether cinchona bark

5032-413: Was known to cure intermittent fevers. Hahnemann took daily a large, rather than homeopathic, dose of Peruvian bark. After two weeks, he said he felt malaria-like symptoms. This idea of "like cures like" was the starting point of his writings on homeopathy. Hahnemann's symptoms have been suggested by researchers, both homeopaths and skeptics, as being an indicator of his hypersensitivity to quinine. The bark

5106-426: Was rewarded by the king with 3,000 gold crowns and a lifetime pension for this prescription. Talbor was asked to keep the entire episode secret. After Talbor's death, the French king published this formula: seven grams of rose leaves, two ounces of lemon juice and a strong decoction of the cinchona bark served with wine. Wine was used because some alkaloids of the cinchona bark are not soluble in water, but are soluble in

5180-494: Was sent to Ecuador to determine the length of a degree of the 1/4 of meridian arc in the neighbourhood of the equator , was published by the French Academy of Sciences . In it he identified three separate species. The birth of homeopathy was based on cinchona bark testing. The founder of homeopathy, Samuel Hahnemann , when translating William Cullen 's Materia medica , noticed Cullen had written that Peruvian bark

5254-605: Was therefore of great importance to secure the supply of the cure. In 1860, a British expedition to South America led by Clements Markham smuggled back cinchona seeds and plants, which were introduced in several areas of British India and Sri Lanka. In India, it was planted in Ootacamund by William Graham McIvor . In Sri Lanka, it was planted in the Hakgala Botanical Garden in January 1861. James Taylor ,

5328-516: Was used in any traditional medicines within Andean Indigenous groups when it first came to notice by Europeans is unclear. Since its first confirmed medicinal record in the early 17th century, it has been used as a treatment for malaria. This use was popularised in Europe by the Spanish colonisers of South America. The bark contains alkaloids , including quinine and quinidine . Cinchona is the only economically practical source of quinine,

5402-409: Was used. The alkaloid mixture or its sulphated form mixed in alcohol and sold as quinetum was however very bitter and caused nausea, among other side effects. Cinchona alkaloids include: They find use in organic chemistry as organocatalysts in asymmetric synthesis . Alongside the alkaloids, many cinchona barks contain cinchotannic acid , a particular tannin , which by oxidation rapidly yields

5476-499: Was very valuable to Europeans in expanding their access to and exploitation of resources in distant colonies and at home. Bark gathering was often environmentally destructive, destroying huge expanses of trees for their bark, with difficult conditions for low wages that did not allow the indigenous bark gatherers to settle debts even upon death. Further exploration of the Amazon Basin and the economy of trade in various species of

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