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106-660: Cipolletti was founded as a fort called Confluencia by General Lorenzo Vintter, in 1881. The name was changed later, after César Cipolletti, one of the forerunners of the study of the irrigation system of the Negro River, and heart of the apple and pear cultivation zone of the Alto Valle. The city is located on the north-eastern shore of the Neuquén River , just before it is joined by the Limay River to form

212-611: A 2003 survey found that only 5.3% of vegetable growers in California use rotenone while 1.7% use pyrethrum. These pesticides are not always more safe or environmentally friendly than synthetic pesticides and can cause harm. The main criterion for organic pesticides is that they are naturally derived, and some naturally derived substances have been controversial. Controversial natural pesticides include rotenone, copper , nicotine sulfate , and pyrethrums Rotenone and pyrethrum are particularly controversial because they work by attacking

318-410: A July mean of 6.0 °C (42.8 °F) and nighttime temperatures regularly drop below 0.0 °C (32.0 °F). Overcast days are common during the winter months, averaging 10–12 days from June to August. Spring and fall are variable seasons with temperatures that can reach up to 40 °C (104.0 °F) and below −7.0 °C (19.4 °F) although most days are warm during the day and cool during

424-402: A bed of straw, chaff, or mats with windfalls kept separately. Though methods like this will extend the availabity of reasonably fresh apples, without refrigeration their lifespan is limited. Even sturdy winter apple varieties will only keep well until December in cool climates. For longer storage medieval Europeans strung up cored and peeled apples to dry, either whole or sliced into rings. Of

530-471: A fungicide may eventually result in copper accumulation to toxic levels in soil, and admonitions to avoid excessive accumulations of copper in soil appear in various organic standards and elsewhere. Environmental concerns for several kinds of biota arise at average rates of use of such substances for some crops. In the European Union, where replacement of copper-based fungicides in organic agriculture

636-516: A generic term for all fruit, including nuts . This can be compared to the 14th-century Middle English expression appel of paradis , meaning a banana . The apple is a deciduous tree, generally standing 2 to 4.5 metres (6 to 15 feet) tall in cultivation and up to 15 m (49 ft) in the wild, though more typically 2 to 10 m (6.5 to 33 ft). When cultivated, the size, shape and branch density are determined by rootstock selection and trimming method. Apple trees may naturally have

742-408: A last resort. Examples of beneficial insects that are used in organic farming include ladybugs and lacewings, both of which feed on aphids. The use of IPM lowers the possibility of pest developing resistance to pesticides that are applied to crops. Organic farming encourages crop diversity by promoting polyculture (multiple crops in the same space). Planting a variety of vegetable crops supports

848-766: A lesser extent ladybugs (which tend to fly away), all of which eat a wide range of pests. Lacewings are also effective, but tend to fly away. Praying mantis tend to move more slowly and eat less heavily. Parasitoid wasps tend to be effective for their selected prey, but like all small insects can be less effective outdoors because the wind controls their movement. Predatory mites are effective for controlling other mites. Naturally derived insecticides allowed for use on organic farms include Bacillus thuringiensis (a bacterial toxin), pyrethrum (a chrysanthemum extract), spinosad (a bacterial metabolite), neem (a tree extract) and rotenone (a legume root extract). Fewer than 10% of organic farmers use these pesticides regularly;

954-420: A long period of time and permitted secondary introgression of genes from other species into the open-pollinated seeds. Significant exchange with Malus sylvestris , the crabapple, resulted in populations of apples being more related to crabapples than to the more morphologically similar progenitor Malus sieversii . In strains without recent admixture the contribution of the latter predominates. The apple

1060-711: A minor role in the organic weed control toolbox. Weeds can be controlled by grazing. For example, geese have been used successfully to weed a range of organic crops including cotton, strawberries, tobacco, and corn, reviving the practice of keeping cotton patch geese , common in the southern U.S. before the 1950s. Similarly, some rice farmers introduce ducks and fish to wet paddy fields to eat both weeds and insects. Organisms aside from weeds that cause problems on farms include arthropods (e.g., insects, mites ), nematodes , fungi and bacteria . Practices include, but are not limited to: Examples of predatory beneficial insects include minute pirate bugs , big-eyed bugs , and to

1166-400: A naturally occurring form of potash that provides potassium. In some cases pH may need to be amended. Natural pH amendments include lime and sulfur , but in the U.S. some compounds such as iron sulfate , aluminum sulfate , magnesium sulfate , and soluble boron products are allowed in organic farming. Mixed farms with both livestock and crops can operate as ley farms , whereby

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1272-484: A number of organic and non-organic means. In 2010, the fruit's genome was sequenced as part of research on disease control and selective breeding in apple production. The word apple , whose Old English ancestor is æppel , is descended from the Proto-Germanic noun * aplaz , descended in turn from Proto-Indo-European * h₂ébōl . As late as the 17th century, the word also functioned as

1378-536: A pantry and four to six weeks from the date of purchase in a refrigerator that maintains 4 to 0 °C (39 to 32 °F). Some varieties of apples (e.g. ' Granny Smith ' and ' Fuji ') have more than three times the storage life of others. Non-organic apples may be sprayed with a substance 1-methylcyclopropene blocking the apples' ethylene receptors, temporarily preventing them from ripening. Apple trees are susceptible to fungal and bacterial diseases, and to damage by insect pests. Many commercial orchards pursue

1484-447: A program of chemical sprays to maintain high fruit quality, tree health, and high yields. These prohibit the use of synthetic pesticides, though some older pesticides are allowed. Organic methods include, for instance, introducing its natural predator to reduce the population of a particular pest. A wide range of pests and diseases can affect the plant. Three of the more common diseases or pests are mildew, aphids, and apple scab. Among

1590-510: A request by adherent farmers who noticed degraded soil conditions and a deterioration in the health and quality of crops and livestock resulting from the use of chemical fertilizers. The lectures were published in November 1924; the first English translation appeared in 1928 as The Agriculture Course . In July 1939, Ehrenfried Pfeiffer , the author of the standard work on biodynamic agriculture ( Bio-Dynamic Farming and Gardening ), came to

1696-459: A rounded to erect crown with a dense canopy of leaves. The bark of the trunk is dark gray or gray-brown, but young branches are reddish or dark-brown with a smooth texture. Young twigs are covered in fine downy hairs; they become hairless when older. The buds are egg-shaped and dark red or purple in color; they range in size from 3 to 5 millimeters, but are usually less than 4 mm. The bud scales have very hairy edges. When emerging from

1802-1099: A single crop cannot be grown in the same location without a different, intervening crop. Organic crop rotations frequently include weed-suppressive cover crops and crops with dissimilar life cycles to discourage weeds associated with a particular crop. Research is ongoing to develop organic methods to promote the growth of natural microorganisms that suppress the growth or germination of common weeds. Other cultural practices used to enhance crop competitiveness and reduce weed pressure include selection of competitive crop varieties, high-density planting, tight row spacing, and late planting into warm soil to encourage rapid crop germination . Mechanical and physical weed control practices used on organic farms can be broadly grouped as: Some naturally sourced chemicals are allowed for herbicidal use. These include certain formulations of acetic acid (concentrated vinegar), corn gluten meal , and essential oils . A few selective bioherbicides based on fungal pathogens have also been developed. At this time, however, organic herbicides and bioherbicides play

1908-409: A species has more than 100 alternative scientific names, or synonyms . In modern times, Malus pumila and Malus domestica are the two main names in use. M. pumila is the older name, but M. domestica has become much more commonly used starting in the 21st century, especially in the western world. Two proposals were made to make M. domestica a conserved name : the earlier proposal

2014-560: A strong minority following. Extremely sweet apples with barely any acid flavor are popular in Asia, especially the Indian subcontinent . Old cultivars are often oddly shaped, russeted, and grow in a variety of textures and colors. Some find them to have better flavor than modern cultivars, but they may have other problems that make them commercially unviable—low yield, disease susceptibility, poor tolerance for storage or transport, or just being

2120-730: A wider range of beneficial insects, soil microorganisms, and other factors that add up to overall farm health. Crop diversity helps the environment to thrive and protects species from going extinct. The science of Agroecology has revealed the benefits of polyculture, which is often employed in organic farming. Agroecology is a scientific discipline that uses ecological theory to study, design, manage, and evaluate agricultural systems that are productive and resource-conserving, and that are also culturally sensitive, socially just, and economically viable. Incorporating crop diversity into organic farming practices can have several benefits. For instance, it can help to increase soil fertility by promoting

2226-488: Is a policy priority, research is seeking alternatives for organic production. Raising livestock and poultry, for meat, dairy and eggs, is another traditional farming activity that complements growing. Organic farms attempt to provide animals with natural living conditions and feed. Organic certification verifies that livestock are raised according to the USDA organic regulations throughout their lives. These regulations include

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2332-457: Is an agricultural system that emphasizes the use of naturally occurring, non-synthetic inputs such as compost manure , green manure , and bone meal and places emphasis on techniques such as crop rotation , companion planting , and mixed cropping . Biological pest control methods such as the fostering of insect predators are also encouraged. Organic agriculture can be defined as "an integrated farming system that strives for sustainability ,

2438-467: Is based on the principles of health, care for all living beings and the environment, ecology, and fairness. Organic methods champion sustainability , self-sufficiency , autonomy and independence , health , animal welfare, food security , and food safety . It is often seen as part of the solution to the impacts of climate change . Organic agricultural methods are internationally regulated and legally enforced by transnational organizations such as

2544-482: Is generally considered the center of origin for apples due to the genetic variability in specimens there. The wild ancestor of Malus domestica was Malus sieversii , found growing wild in the mountains of Central Asia in southern Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , and northwestern China . Cultivation of the species, most likely beginning on the forested flanks of the Tian Shan mountains, progressed over

2650-562: Is generally pale yellowish-white, though it can be pink, yellow or green. Important volatile compounds in apples that contribute to their scent and flavour include acetaldehyde , ethyl acetate , 1-butanal , ethanol , 2-methylbutanal, 3-methylbutanal , ethyl propionate , ethyl 2-methylpropionate, ethyl butyrate , ethyl 2-methyl butyrate, hexanal , 1-butanol , 3-methylbutyl acetate , 2-methylbutyl acetate, 1-propyl butyrate, ethyl pentanoate , amyl acetate , 2-methyl-1-butanol , trans-2-hexenal, ethyl hexanoate , hexanol . The apple as

2756-572: Is hard to distinguish in the archeological record between foraged wild apples and apple plantations. There is indirect evidence of apple cultivation in the third millennium BCE in the Middle East . There is direct evidence, apple cores, dated to the 10th century BCE from a Judean site between the Sinai and Negev. There was substantial apple production in European classical antiquity, and grafting

2862-509: Is increasingly penetrating organic and heirloom seed stocks , making it difficult, if not impossible, to keep these genomes from entering the organic food supply. Differing regulations among countries limits the availability of GMOs to certain countries, as described in the article on regulation of the release of genetic modified organisms . Organic farmers use a number of traditional farm tools to do farming, and may make use of agricultural machinery in similar ways to conventional farming. In

2968-489: Is quite variable and may be nearly round, elongated, conical, or short and wide. The groundcolor of ripe apples is yellow, green, yellow-green or whitish yellow. The overcolor of ripe apples can be orange-red, pink-red, red, purple-red or brown-red. The overcolor amount can be 0–100%. The skin may be wholly or partly russeted , making it rough and brown. The skin is covered in a protective layer of epicuticular wax . The skin may also be marked with scattered dots. The flesh

3074-702: Is the responsibility of the Department of Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs, includes a collection of over 2,000 cultivars of apple tree in Kent. The University of Reading , which is responsible for developing the UK national collection database, provides access to search the national collection. The University of Reading's work is part of the European Cooperative Programme for Plant Genetic Resources of which there are 38 countries participating in

3180-597: Is thought to have been domesticated 4,000–10,000 years ago in the Tian Shan mountains, and then to have travelled along the Silk Road to Europe, with hybridization and introgression of wild crabapples from Siberia ( M. baccata ), the Caucasus ( M. orientalis ), and Europe ( M. sylvestris ). Only the M. sieversii trees growing on the western side of the Tian Shan mountains contributed genetically to

3286-562: Is very bulky and is often not cost-effective to transport more than a short distance from the source. Manure for organic farms' may become scarce if a sizable number of farms become organically managed. Organic weed management promotes weed suppression, rather than weed elimination, by enhancing crop competition and phytotoxic effects on weeds. Organic farmers integrate cultural, biological, mechanical, physical and chemical tactics to manage weeds without synthetic herbicides . Organic standards require rotation of annual crops, meaning that

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3392-629: The European Union and also by individual nations, based in large part on the standards set by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), an international umbrella organization for organic farming organizations established in 1972, with regional branches such as IFOAM Organics Europe and IFOAM Asia. Since 1990, the market for organic food and other products has grown rapidly, reaching $ 150 billion worldwide in 2022 – of which more than $ 64 billion

3498-501: The Mar del Plata Declaration , where more than 600 delegates from over 60 countries voted unanimously to exclude the use of genetically modified organisms in organic food production and agriculture. Although opposition to the use of any transgenic technologies in organic farming is strong, agricultural researchers Luis Herrera-Estrella and Ariel Alvarez-Morales continue to advocate integration of transgenic technologies into organic farming as

3604-548: The Negro River , a short distance upstream from the city of General Roca . Opposite Cipolletti, across the river, lies Neuquén , capital of the province of the same name , connected to it by road and railway bridges . Cipolletti's neighborhood of Las Perlas lies south of Neuquén, 14 km west from its city center, and has the character of an independent town. Cipolletti has a borderline semi-arid climate ( Köppen climate classification BSk/BWk ). Winters are cool with

3710-538: The Principles of Organic Agriculture , an international guideline for certification criteria. Typically the agencies accredit certification groups rather than individual farms. Production materials used for the creation of USDA Organic certified foods require the approval of a NOP accredited certifier. EU-organic production-regulation on "organic" food labels define "organic" primarily in terms of whether "natural" or "artificial" substances were allowed as inputs in

3816-460: The apple clearwing moth (red-belted clearwing) burrow through the bark and into the phloem of apple trees, potentially causing significant damage. There are more than 7,500 known cultivars (cultivated varieties) of apples. Cultivars vary in their yield and the ultimate size of the tree, even when grown on the same rootstock . Different cultivars are available for temperate and subtropical climates. The UK's National Fruit Collection, which

3922-487: The petals are rose-pink and fade to white or light pink when fully open with each flower 3-to-4-centimeter (1-to- 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 -inch) in diameter. The five-petaled flowers are group in an inflorescence consisting of a cyme with 3–7 flowers. The central flower of the inflorescence is called the "king bloom"; it opens first and can develop a larger fruit. Open apple blossoms are damaged by even brief exposures to temperatures −2 °C (28 °F) or less, although

4028-549: The "best" cultivars, showing the proliferation of new North American cultivars by the early 19th century. In the 20th century, irrigation projects in Eastern Washington began and allowed the development of the multibillion-dollar fruit industry, of which the apple is the leading product. Until the 20th century, farmers stored apples in frostproof cellars during the winter for their own use or for sale. Improved transportation of fresh apples by train and road replaced

4134-604: The "father of organic farming" for his work in applying scientific knowledge and principles to various traditional and natural methods. In the United States J. I. Rodale , who was keenly interested both in Howard's ideas and in biodynamics, founded in the 1940s both a working organic farm for trials and experimentation, The Rodale Institute , and Rodale, Inc. in Emmaus, Pennsylvania to teach and advocate organic methods to

4240-819: The "wrong" size. A few old cultivars are still produced on a large scale, but many have been preserved by home gardeners and farmers that sell directly to local markets. Many unusual and locally important cultivars with their own unique taste and appearance exist; apple conservation campaigns have sprung up around the world to preserve such local cultivars from extinction. In the United Kingdom, old cultivars such as ' Cox's Orange Pippin ' and ' Egremont Russet ' are still commercially important even though by modern standards they are low yielding and susceptible to disease. 2022, millions of tonnes Organic farming Organic farming , also known as organic agriculture or ecological farming or biological farming ,

4346-544: The ' Cosmic Crisp ' cultivar in 2017. The third most grown apple cultivar in the United States is the ' Honeycrisp ', released by the University of Minnesota program in 1991. Unusually for a popular cultivar, the 'Honeycrisp' is not directly related to another popular apple cultivar but instead to two unsuccessful cultivars. In Europe there are also many breeding programs such as the Julius Kühn-Institut ,

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4452-815: The 15th century and later went through several cycles of popularity and decline throughout the world. The majority of the rootstocks used to control size in apples were developed in England in the early 1900s. The East Malling Research Station conducted extensive research into rootstocks, and their rootstocks are given an "M" prefix to designate their origin. Rootstocks marked with an "MM" prefix are Malling-series cultivars later crossed with trees of ' Northern Spy ' in Merton, England . Most new apple cultivars originate as seedlings, which either arise by chance or are bred by deliberately crossing cultivars with promising characteristics. The words "seedling", "pippin", and "kernel" in

4558-494: The 1990s, a trend toward legislated standards began, most notably with the 1991 EU-Eco-regulation developed for European Union , which set standards for 12 countries, and a 1993 UK program. The EU's program was followed by a Japanese program in 2001, and in 2002 the U.S. created the National Organic Program (NOP). As of 2007 over 60 countries regulate organic farming ( IFOAM 2007:11 ). In 2005 IFOAM created

4664-590: The German federal research center for cultivated plants. Commercially popular apple cultivars are soft but crisp. Other desirable qualities in modern commercial apple breeding are a colorful skin, absence of russeting , ease of shipping, lengthy storage ability, high yields, disease resistance, common apple shape, and developed flavor. Modern apples are generally sweeter than older cultivars, as popular tastes in apples have varied over time. Most North Americans and Europeans favor sweet, subacid apples, but tart apples have

4770-539: The Malus/Pyrus work group. The UK's national fruit collection database contains much information on the characteristics and origin of many apples, including alternative names for what is essentially the same "genetic" apple cultivar. Most of these cultivars are bred for eating fresh (dessert apples), though some are cultivated specifically for cooking ( cooking apples ) or producing cider . Cider apples are typically too tart and astringent to eat fresh, but they give

4876-510: The UK at the invitation of Walter James, 4th Baron Northbourne as a presenter at the Betteshanger Summer School and Conference on Biodynamic Farming at Northbourne's farm in Kent. One of the chief purposes of the conference was to bring together the proponents of various approaches to organic agriculture in order that they might cooperate within a larger movement. Howard attended the conference, where he met Pfeiffer. In

4982-404: The atmosphere. This has an added benefit of carbon sequestration , which reduces greenhouse gases and helps reverse climate change. Reducing tillage may also improve soil structure and reduce the potential for soil erosion. Plants need a large number of nutrients in various quantities to flourish. Supplying enough nitrogen and particularly synchronization, so that plants get enough nitrogen at

5088-404: The average 30-day blossom period, with pollinizers selected from cultivars within a 6-day overlap period. There are four to seven pollination groups in apples, depending on climate: One cultivar can be pollinated by a compatible cultivar from the same group or close (A with A, or A with B, but not A with C or D). Cultivars vary in their yield and the ultimate size of the tree, even when grown on

5194-1117: The bacteria Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus pumilus ; and the fungus Trichoderma harzianum . These are mainly effective for diseases affecting roots. Compost tea contains a mix of beneficial microbes, which may attack or out-compete certain plant pathogens, but variability among formulations and preparation methods may contribute to inconsistent results or even dangerous growth of toxic microbes in compost teas. Some naturally derived pesticides are not allowed for use on organic farms. These include nicotine sulfate, arsenic , and strychnine . Synthetic pesticides allowed for use on organic farms include insecticidal soaps and horticultural oils for insect management; and Bordeaux mixture , copper hydroxide and sodium bicarbonate for managing fungi. Copper sulfate and Bordeaux mixture (copper sulfate plus lime), approved for organic use in various jurisdictions, can be more environmentally problematic than some synthetic fungicides disallowed in organic farming. Similar concerns apply to copper hydroxide. Repeated application of copper sulfate or copper hydroxide as

5300-431: The base of the flower. The seeds are egg- to pear-shaped and may be colored from light brown or tan to a very dark brown, often with red shades or even purplish-black. They may have a blunt or sharp point. The five sepals remain attached and stand out from the surface of the apple. The size of the fruit varies widely between cultivars, but generally has a diameter between 2.5 and 12 cm (1 and 5 in). The shape

5406-479: The beverage a rich flavor that dessert apples cannot. In the United States there are many apple breeding programs associated with universities. Cornell University has had a program operating since 1880 in Geneva, New York . Among their recent well known apples is the 'SnapDragon' cultivar released in 2013. In the west Washington State University started a program to support their apple industry in 1994 and released

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5512-694: The branches. Trees grafted on dwarfing rootstocks bear about 10–80 kg (20–180 lb) of fruit per year. Some farms with apple orchards open them to the public so consumers can pick their own apples. Crops ripen at different times of the year according to the cultivar. Cultivar that yield their crop in the summer include ' Sweet Bough ' and 'Duchess'; fall producers include 'Blenheim'; winter producers include 'King', ' Swayzie ', and 'Tolman Sweet'. Commercially, apples can be stored for months in controlled atmosphere chambers. Apples are commonly stored in chambers with lowered concentrations of oxygen to reduce respiration and slow softening and other changes if

5618-421: The buds, the leaves are convolute , meaning that their edges overlap each other. Leaves can be simple ovals ( elliptic ), medium or wide in width, somewhat egg-shaped with the wider portion toward their base ( ovate ), or even with sides that are more parallel to each other instead of curved ( oblong ) with a narrow pointed end. The edges have broadly-angled teeth, but do not have lobes. The top surface of

5724-453: The case when a triploid plant can produce a seed (apples are an example), it occurs infrequently, and seedlings rarely survive. Because apples are not true breeders when planted as seeds, propagation usually involves grafting of cuttings. The rootstock used for the bottom of the graft can be selected to produce trees of a large variety of sizes, as well as changing the winter hardiness, insect and disease resistance, and soil preference of

5830-410: The characteristics of the parent. This is because seedling apples are " extreme heterozygotes ". Rather than resembling their parents, seedlings are all different from each other and from their parents. Triploid cultivars have an additional reproductive barrier in that three sets of chromosomes cannot be divided evenly during meiosis, yielding unequal segregation of the chromosomes (aneuploids). Even in

5936-427: The competition between the legume and the crop can be problematic and wider spacing between crop rows is required. Crop residues can be ploughed back into the soil, and different plants leave different amounts of nitrogen, potentially aiding synchronization. Organic farmers also use animal manure , certain processed fertilizers such as seed meal and various mineral powders such as rock phosphate and green sand ,

6042-562: The crop is harvested if the final product comes into direct contact with the soil. For products that do not directly contact soil, 90 days must pass prior to harvest. In the US, the Organic Food Production Act of 1990 (OFPA) as amended, specifies that a farm can not be certified as organic if the compost being used contains any synthetic ingredients. The OFPA singles out commercially blended fertilizers [composts] disallowing

6148-399: The developing world have converted to modern organic methods for economic reasons. The use of "organic" popularized by Howard and Rodale refers more narrowly to the use of organic matter derived from plant compost and animal manures to improve the humus content of soils, grounded in the work of early soil scientists who developed what was then called "humus farming". Since the early 1940s

6254-411: The developing world, on small organic farms, tools are normally constrained to hand tools and diesel powered water pumps. Standards regulate production methods and in some cases final output for organic agriculture. Standards may be voluntary or legislated. As early as the 1970s private associations certified organic producers. In the 1980s, governments began to produce organic production guidelines. In

6360-582: The domesticated apple, not the isolated population on the eastern side. Chinese soft apples, such as M. asiatica and M. prunifolia , have been cultivated as dessert apples for more than 2,000 years in China. These are thought to be hybrids between M. baccata and M. sieversii in Kazakhstan. Among the traits selected for by human growers are size, fruit acidity, color, firmness, and soluble sugar. Unusually for domesticated fruits,

6466-568: The enhancement of soil fertility and biological diversity while, with rare exceptions, prohibiting synthetic pesticides, antibiotics , synthetic fertilizers, genetically modified organisms , and growth hormones ". It originated early in the 20th century in reaction to rapidly changing farming practices. Certified organic agriculture today accounts for 70 million hectares (170 million acres) globally, with over half of that total in Australia. Organic standards are designed to allow

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6572-570: The field of agroecology . While conventional agriculture uses synthetic pesticides and water-soluble synthetically purified fertilizers, organic farmers are restricted by regulations to using natural pesticides and fertilizers. An example of a natural pesticide is pyrethrin , which is found naturally in the Chrysanthemum flower. The principal methods of organic farming include crop rotation , green manures and compost , biological pest control , and mechanical cultivation . These measures use

6678-400: The flowering each season, apple growers often utilize pollinators to carry pollen. Honey bees are most commonly used. Orchard mason bees are also used as supplemental pollinators in commercial orchards. Bumblebee queens are sometimes present in orchards, but not usually in sufficient number to be significant pollinators. Cultivars are sometimes classified by the day of peak bloom in

6784-517: The following year, Northbourne published his manifesto of organic farming, Look to the Land , in which he coined the term "organic farming". The Betteshanger conference has been described as the 'missing link' between biodynamic agriculture and other forms of organic farming. In 1940 Howard published his An Agricultural Testament . In this book he adopted Northbourne's terminology of "organic farming". Howard's work spread widely, and he became known as

6890-404: The food production process. Using manure as a fertilizer risks contaminating food with animal gut bacteria, including pathogenic strains of E. coli that have caused fatal poisoning from eating organic food. To combat this risk, USDA organic standards require that manure must be sterilized through high temperature thermophilic composting . If raw animal manure is used, 120 days must pass before

6996-470: The form of food for farmers and other animals. While today, small growing operations often do not include livestock, domesticated animals are a desirable part of the organic farming equation, especially for true sustainability, the ability of a farm to function as a self-renewing unit. A key characteristic of organic farming is the exclusion of genetically engineered plants and animals. On 19 October 1998, participants at IFOAM's 12th Scientific Conference issued

7102-483: The fruit is already fully ripe. The gas ethylene is used by plants as a hormone which promotes ripening, decreasing the time an apple can be stored. For storage longer than about six months the apples are picked earlier, before full ripeness, when ethylene production by the fruit is low. However, in many varieties this increases their sensitivity to carbon dioxide , which also must be controlled. For home storage, most culitvars of apple can be stored for three weeks in

7208-436: The general population in modern times has transformed the originally supply-driven organic movement to a demand-driven one. Premium prices and some government subsidies attracted farmers. In the developing world, many producers farm according to traditional methods that are comparable to organic farming, but not certified, and that may not include the latest scientific advancements in organic agriculture. In other cases, farmers in

7314-497: The growth of beneficial soil microorganisms . It can also help to reduce pest and disease pressure by creating a more diverse and resilient agroecosystem . Furthermore, crop diversity can help to improve the nutritional quality of food by providing a wider range of essential nutrients . Organic farming relies more heavily on the natural breakdown of organic matter than the average conventional farm, using techniques like green manure and composting , to replace nutrients taken from

7420-403: The integrity, the independence and the benign dependence of an organism They based their work on Steiner's spiritually-oriented alternative agriculture which includes various esoteric concepts. "Organic agriculture is a production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems and people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than

7526-581: The land gathers fertility through growing nitrogen-fixing forage grasses such as white clover or alfalfa and grows cash crops or cereals when fertility is established. Farms without livestock ("stockless") may find it more difficult to maintain soil fertility, and may rely more on external inputs such as imported manure as well as grain legumes and green manures, although grain legumes may fix limited nitrogen because they are harvested. Horticultural farms that grow fruits and vegetables in protected conditions often rely even more on external inputs. Manure

7632-417: The leaves are glabrescent , almost hairless, while the undersides are densely covered in fine hairs. The leaves are attached alternately by short leaf stems 1-to-3.5 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 -to- 1 + 1 ⁄ 2  in) long. Blossoms are produced in spring simultaneously with the budding of the leaves and are produced on spurs and some long shoots . When the flower buds first begin to open

7738-689: The many Old World plants that the Spanish introduced to Chiloé Archipelago in the 16th century, apple trees became particularly well adapted. Apples were introduced to North America by colonists in the 17th century, and the first named apple cultivar was introduced in Boston by Reverend William Blaxton in 1640. The only apples native to North America are crab apples . Apple cultivars brought as seed from Europe were spread along Native American trade routes, as well as being cultivated on colonial farms. An 1845 United States apples nursery catalogue sold 350 of

7844-431: The most serious disease problems is a bacterial disease called fireblight , and three fungal diseases: Gymnosporangium rust, black spot , and bitter rot . Codling moths , and the apple maggots of fruit flies, cause serious damage to apple fruits, making them unsaleable. Young apple trees are also prone to mammal pests like mice and deer, which feed on the soft bark of the trees, especially in winter. The larvae of

7950-614: The most widely grown species in the genus Malus . The tree originated in Central Asia , where its wild ancestor, Malus sieversii , is still found. Apples have been grown for thousands of years in Eurasia and were introduced to North America by European colonists . Apples have religious and mythological significance in many cultures, including Norse , Greek , and European Christian tradition. Apples grown from seed tend to be very different from those of their parents, and

8056-625: The name of an apple cultivar suggest that it originated as a seedling. Apples can also form bud sports (mutations on a single branch). Some bud sports turn out to be improved strains of the parent cultivar. Some differ sufficiently from the parent tree to be considered new cultivars. Apples have been acclimatized in Ecuador at very high altitudes, where they can often, with the needed factors, provide crops twice per year because of constant temperate conditions year-round. Apples are self-incompatible; they must cross-pollinate to develop fruit. During

8162-447: The natural environment to enhance agricultural productivity: legumes are planted to fix nitrogen into the soil, natural insect predators are encouraged, crops are rotated to confuse pests and renew soil, and natural materials such as potassium bicarbonate and mulches are used to control disease and weeds . Genetically modified seeds and animals are excluded. While organic is fundamentally different from conventional because of

8268-458: The necessity for storage. Controlled atmosphere facilities are used to keep apples fresh year-round. Controlled atmosphere facilities use high humidity, low oxygen, and controlled carbon dioxide levels to maintain fruit freshness. They were first researched at Cambridge University in the 1920s and first used in the United States in the 1950s. Many apples grow readily from seeds. However, apples must be propagated asexually to obtain cuttings with

8374-466: The nervous system, like most conventional insecticides. Rotenone is extremely toxic to fish and can induce symptoms resembling Parkinson's disease in mammals. Although pyrethrum (natural pyrethrins) is more effective against insects when used with piperonyl butoxide (which retards degradation of the pyrethrins), organic standards generally do not permit use of the latter substance. Naturally derived fungicides allowed for use on organic farms include

8480-463: The night. Summers are hot, dry and sunny with a January mean of 21.9 °C (71.4 °F). Daytime temperatures average 30 °C (86.0 °F) while nighttime temperatures are cooler, averaging 15 °C (59.0 °F). Precipitation is low, averaging 213.7 millimetres (8 in), which is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year. The first date of frost occurs on May 4 while the last frost occurs on September 10. The highest temperature recorded

8586-419: The optimal means to sustainable agriculture, particularly in the developing world. Organic farmer Raoul Adamchak and geneticist Pamela Ronald write that many agricultural applications of biotechnology are consistent with organic principles and have significantly advanced sustainable agriculture. Although GMOs are excluded from organic farming, there is concern that the pollen from genetically modified crops

8692-415: The overwintering wood and buds are hardy down to −40 °C (−40 °F). The fruit is a pome that matures in late summer or autumn . The true fruits or carpels are the harder interior chambers inside the apple's core. There are usually five carpels inside an apple, but there may be as few as three. Each of the chambers contains one or two seeds. The edible flesh is formed from the receptacle at

8798-486: The pears, apples, and quinces were combined into one genus that he named Pyrus and he named the apple as Pyrus malus . This was widely accepted, however the botanist Philip Miller published an alternate classification in The Gardeners Dictionary with the apple species separated from Pyrus in 1754. He did not clearly indicate that by Malus pumila he meant the domesticated apple. Nonetheless, it

8904-405: The requirement that all animal feed must be certified organic. Organic livestock may be, and must be, treated with medicine when they are sick, but drugs cannot be used to promote growth, their feed must be organic, and they must be pastured. Also, horses and cattle were once a basic farm feature that provided labour, for hauling and plowing, fertility, through recycling of manure, and fuel, in

9010-685: The resultant fruit frequently lacks desired characteristics. For commercial purposes, including botanical evaluation, apple cultivars are propagated by clonal grafting onto rootstocks . Apple trees grown without rootstocks tend to be larger and much slower to fruit after planting. Rootstocks are used to control the speed of growth and the size of the resulting tree, allowing for easier harvesting. There are more than 7,500 cultivars of apples . Different cultivars are bred for various tastes and uses, including cooking , eating raw, and cider or apple juice production. Trees and fruit are prone to fungal , bacterial, and pest problems, which can be controlled by

9116-521: The resulting tree. Dwarf rootstocks can be used to produce very small trees (less than 3.0 m or 10 ft high at maturity), which bear fruit many years earlier in their life cycle than full size trees, and are easier to harvest. Dwarf rootstocks for apple trees can be traced as far back as 300 BCE, to the area of Persia and Asia Minor . Alexander the Great sent samples of dwarf apple trees to Aristotle 's Lyceum . Dwarf rootstocks became common by

9222-473: The rotation of crops, erosion prevention techniques, and the systematic use of composts and manures. Stimulated by these experiences of traditional farming, when Albert Howard returned to Britain in the early 1930s he began to promulgate a system of organic agriculture. In 1924 Rudolf Steiner gave a series of eight lectures on agriculture with a focus on influences of the moon, planets, non-physical beings and elemental forces. They were held in response to

9328-429: The same rootstock. Some cultivars, if left unpruned, grow very large—letting them bear more fruit, but making harvesting more difficult. Depending on tree density (number of trees planted per unit surface area), mature trees typically bear 40–200 kg (90–440 lb) of apples each year, though productivity can be close to zero in poor years. Apples are harvested using three-point ladders that are designed to fit amongst

9434-845: The short-term, had serious longer-term side-effects such as soil compaction , erosion , and declines in overall soil fertility , along with health concerns about toxic chemicals entering the food supply. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, soil biology scientists began to seek ways to remedy these side effects while still maintaining higher production. In 1921 the founder and pioneer of the organic movement Albert Howard and his wife Gabrielle Howard , accomplished botanists , founded an Institute of Plant Industry to improve traditional farming methods in India. Among other things, they brought improved implements and improved animal husbandry methods from their scientific training; then by incorporating aspects of Indian traditional methods, developed protocols for

9540-406: The soil by previous crops. This biological process, driven by microorganisms such as mycorrhiza and earthworms , releases nutrients available to plants throughout the growing season. Farmers use a variety of methods to improve soil fertility, including crop rotation, cover cropping, reduced tillage, and application of compost. By reducing fuel-intensive tillage, less soil organic matter is lost to

9646-401: The time when they need it most, is a challenge for organic farmers. Crop rotation and green manure (" cover crops ") help to provide nitrogen through legumes (more precisely, the family Fabaceae ), which fix nitrogen from the atmosphere through symbiosis with rhizobial bacteria . Intercropping , which is sometimes used for insect and disease control, can also increase soil nutrients, but

9752-423: The two camps have tended to merge. Biodynamic agriculturists, on the other hand, used the term "organic" to indicate that a farm should be viewed as a living organism, in the sense of the following quotation: An organic farm, properly speaking, is not one that uses certain methods and substances and avoids others; it is a farm whose structure is formed in imitation of the structure of a natural system that has

9858-613: The use of any fertilizer [compost] that contains prohibited materials. The economics of organic farming, a subfield of agricultural economics , encompasses the entire process and effects of organic farming in terms of human society, including social costs , opportunity costs , unintended consequences , information asymmetries , and economies of scale . Labour input, carbon and methane emissions , energy use, eutrophication, acidification, soil quality, effect on biodiversity, and overall land use vary considerably between individual farms and between crops, making general comparisons between

9964-563: The use of carbon-based fertilizers compared with highly soluble synthetic based fertilizers and biological pest control instead of synthetic pesticides, organic farming and large-scale conventional farming are not entirely mutually exclusive. Many of the methods developed for organic agriculture have been borrowed by more conventional agriculture. For example, Integrated Pest Management is a multifaceted strategy that uses various organic methods of pest control whenever possible, but in conventional farming could include synthetic pesticides only as

10070-436: The use of inputs with adverse effects. Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation and science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved..." Organic farming methods combine scientific knowledge of ecology and some modern technology with traditional farming practices based on naturally occurring biological processes. Organic farming methods are studied in

10176-777: The use of naturally occurring substances while prohibiting or severely limiting synthetic substances. For instance, naturally occurring pesticides such as garlic extract, bicarbonate of soda, or pyrethrin (which is found naturally in the Chrysanthemum flower) are permitted, while synthetic fertilizers and pesticides such as glyphosate are prohibited. Synthetic substances that are allowed only in exceptional circumstances may include copper sulfate , elemental sulfur , and veterinary drugs . Genetically modified organisms , nanomaterials , human sewage sludge , plant growth regulators , hormones , and antibiotic use in livestock husbandry are prohibited. Broadly, organic agriculture

10282-569: The wider public. These became important influences on the spread of organic agriculture. Further work was done by Lady Eve Balfour (the Haughley Experiment ) in the United Kingdom, and many others across the world. The term "eco-agriculture" was coined in 1970 by Charles Walters , founder of Acres Magazine , to describe agriculture which does not use "man-made molecules of toxic rescue chemistry", effectively another name for organic agriculture. Increasing environmental awareness in

10388-594: The wild M. sieversii origin is only slightly smaller than the modern domesticated apple. At the Sammardenchia-Cueis site near Udine in Northeastern Italy, seeds from some form of apples have been found in material carbon dated to between 6570 and 5684 BCE. Genetic analysis has not yet been successfully used to determine whether such ancient apples were wild Malus sylvestris or Malus domesticus containing Malus sieversii ancestry. It

10494-534: Was 43.8 °C (110.8 °F) on January 22, 2021 while the lowest recorded temperature was −13.6 °C (7.5 °F). This article about a place in Río Negro Province , Argentina is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Apple An apple is a round, edible fruit produced by an apple tree ( Malus spp. , among them the domestic or orchard apple ; Malus domestica ). Apple trees are cultivated worldwide and are

10600-433: Was based on the diploid cultivar ' Golden Delicious '. However, this first whole genome sequence contained several errors, in part owing to the high degree of heterozygosity in diploid apples which, in combination with an ancient genome duplication, complicated the assembly. Recently, double- and trihaploid individuals have been sequenced, yielding whole genome sequences of higher quality. The first whole genome assembly

10706-455: Was certainly known then. Grafting is an essential part of modern domesticated apple production, to be able to propagate the best cultivars; it is unclear when apple tree grafting was invented. The Roman writer Pliny the Elder describes a method of storage for apples from his time in the 1st century. He says they should be placed in a room with good air circulation from a north facing window on

10812-548: Was earned in North America and EUR 53 billion in Europe. This demand has driven a similar increase in organically managed farmland, which grew by 26.6 percent from 2021 to 2022. As of 2022, organic farming is practiced in 188 countries and approximately 96,000,000 hectares (240,000,000 acres) worldwide were farmed organically by 4.5 million farmers, representing approximately 2 percent of total world farmland. Agriculture

10918-469: Was estimated to contain around 57,000 genes, though the more recent genome sequences support estimates between 42,000 and 44,700 protein-coding genes. The availability of whole genome sequences has provided evidence that the wild ancestor of the cultivated apple most likely is Malus sieversii . Re-sequencing of multiple accessions has supported this, while also suggesting extensive introgression from Malus sylvestris following domestication. Central Asia

11024-416: Was practiced for thousands of years without the use of artificial chemicals. Artificial fertilizers were first developed during the mid-19th century. These early fertilizers were cheap, powerful, and easy to transport in bulk. Similar advances occurred in chemical pesticides in the 1940s, leading to the decade being referred to as the "pesticide era". These new agricultural techniques, while beneficial in

11130-639: Was used as such by many botanists. When Moritz Balthasar Borkhausen published his scientific description of the apple in 1803 it may have been a new combination of P. malus var. domestica , but this was not directly referenced by Borkhausen. The earliest use of var. domestica for the apple was by Georg Adolf Suckow in 1786. Apples are diploid , with two sets of chromosomes per cell (though triploid cultivars, with three sets, are not uncommon), have 17 chromosomes and an estimated genome size of approximately 650 Mb. Several whole genome sequences have been completed and made available. The first one in 2010

11236-746: Was voted down by the Committee for Vascular Plants of the IAPT in 2014, but in April 2017 the Committee decided, with a narrow majority, that the newly popular name should be conserved. The General Committee of the IAPT decided in June 2017 to approve this change, officially conserving M. domestica . Nevertheless, some works published after 2017 still use M. pumila as the correct name , under an alternate taxonomy. When first classified by Linnaeus in 1753,

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