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59-596: The Klallam ( Klallam : nəxʷsƛ̕áy̕əm̕ ; also known as the S'Klallam or Clallam ) are a Coast Salish people Indigenous to the northern Olympic Peninsula . The language of the Klallam is the Klallam language ( Klallam : nəxʷsƛ̕ay̕əmúcən ), a language closely related to the North Straits Salish languages. The Klallam are today citizens of four recognized bands: Three federally-recognized tribes in

118-429: A lack of control, or a "finally" or "manage to" sense ─ it's out of the subject's control whether they will succeed. A suffix -əŋ on a transitivized verb creates a passive construction. For example, c̕áʔkʷtəŋ cn ʔaʔ cə nəŋə́naʔ "I was washed by my child". There is additionally a middle voice in which the suffix -əŋ on an intransitive stem creates an antipassive construction indicating an agent subject. If no patient

177-559: A number of different ideas. Oftentimes, these suffixes can take on metaphorically extended meaning, so 'nose' can also be used to refer to a single point, and 'mouth' can mean 'language'. Below are examples of common lexical suffixes with alternate pronunciation in parentheses. Alternate pronunciations usually depend on the location of the stress in the root. There are also activity suffixes that give more information about an activity, such as 'structured' with -ayu and -ay̓s, 'customary' with -iŋəɬ, or 'habitual' with -ənəq. Sometimes plurality

236-433: A number of examples. Allomorphy is common; often, a single affix with have multiple phonetic realizations due to stress structure or the phonology of the word it is being added to. A common form of prefix is the time prefix. These prefixes can be added to nouns, adjectives and verbs to project ideas of time into the root's meaning. Examples include kwɬ - (already), twaw̓ (still), čaʔ (just now), and txʷ- (first, for

295-439: A particular meaning to the word. Two-consonant reduplication is a way to express plurality in about 10% of Kallam words. The first two consonants are copied and inserted before their location in the stem, and a schwa is inserted between them. For example, ləmətú (sheep) becomes ləmləmətú (bunch of sheep) through this process. First letter reduplication is one of three ways to create a continuative verb form. The first consonant of

354-495: A rounded bottom and was 12–30 feet (4–9 m) long, 20–48 inches (50–120 cm) wide, and 9–20 inches (20–50 cm) deep. This type was used on calm waters for fishing or to haul small loads. The larger canoes had flat bottoms and could be over 30 feet (10 m) long, 6 feet (200 cm) wide, and 3 feet (100 cm) deep. These were used on the rougher waters of Puget Sound , the Strait of Juan de Fuca , and in particular off

413-515: A small exploring fleet, which for a time based itself at Port Discovery. It is not known which ship first made contact with the Klallam, but it was most likely before 1789 and probably at the village at Clallam Bay or Port Discovery, and involved gifts of knives, buttons, and copper. George Vancouver made contact with the Klallam in 1792. He thought he was the first European to visit them and wrote about their indifference, which surprised him. He traded them copper, knives, and minor trade goods. In 1825

472-404: A variety of moods and evidentials. In main clauses, Klallam uses an ergative-absolutive pattern to mark the third person. The first and second persons in the main clause, however, as well as all persons in subordinate clauses, follow a nominative-accusative pattern. Verbs are intransitive unless marked with one of several transitivizing suffixes. The suffix -t on a verb indicates control by

531-441: A while). Other prefixes add verbal semantics with meanings such as 'have', 'go to', 'go from', and 'be affected by'. Klallam has lexical suffixes, which are unique to the languages of northwest North America. They have inherently noun-like meanings and can function as the object of a verb, create a compound meaning, and act as the object of a number word. Many refer to body parts, but there are almost 100 lexical suffixes that cover

590-433: A word is inserted after the first vowel, sometimes with a schwa added afterwards; for example, qán̓ cn (I steal) becomes qáqən̓ cn (I am stealing). To create a diminutive form the first consonant is reduplicated with an additional 'suffix' of -aʔ afterwards and an infix of -ʔ- later in the word, which may be replaced by glottalization. With this músmes (cow) becomes maʔmúʔsməs (little cow, calf). The diminutive

649-429: Is dropped, creating a [ʔstxʷ] cluster). Stress in Klallam defines the quality of the vowel in any given syllable and can occur only once in a word. Unstressed vowels are often reduced to schwa, which is indicated in the orthography. In turn, unstressed schwas are deleted. Mark Fleischer (1976) argues that schwa may be the only underlying vowel, saying that all others can be derived from the environment. However, there

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708-426: Is marked with an infix (however, there are many ways to mark plurality). This infix marks collective plurality, meaning that instead of strictly marking multiple of a noun, it creates a group of the noun. This infix takes one of the forms -əy̓- , -aʔy- , -éy- , or -éye- depending on the root structure and stress placement proceeding the infix. There are multiple forms of reduplication in Klallam, and each lends

767-478: Is mentioned in the middle voice, it is assumed that the patient and the agent are the same, as in an action being done to oneself. For example, c̕áʔkʷəŋ cn would usually be taken to mean "I washed myself", but it is subject to some ambiguity, as it could also mean "I washed (regularly)" or "I did some washing". Juan Jos%C3%A9 P%C3%A9rez Hern%C3%A1ndez Juan José Pérez Hernández (born Joan Perés c. 1725 – November 3, 1775), often simply Juan Pérez ,

826-421: Is much reason to doubt this theory, as ʔaʔ , ʔiʔ , and ʔuʔ are all contrasting words, and there are likely more minimal pairs between vowels that exist in the language. Stress often falls on the penultimate syllable; however, some affixes attract stress, and some words do not follow this pattern. Additionally, not all words can have stress. Klallam is a polysynthetic language , like the other languages of

885-404: Is not limited to noun forms. When used on a verb, the meaning takes on the characteristic of "just a little" or "by a small thing." With an adjective, the meaning is construed to a lesser extent than the original form. Other forms of reduplication exist with meanings of "characteristic," "inceptive," and "affective" aspects. The typical word order in Klallam is VSO, but if the subject of the verb

944-495: Is now Sequim. The period around 1870 marked what appears to be the lowest point in Klallam history. Due to rampant alcoholism, petty bickering and fighting, and thievery, the white residents of Dungeness forced them to relocate to other nearby areas twice, and then threatened to have them moved to the Skokomish Reservation. This led to Chief James Balch, who had been a heavy drinker until his reform in 1873, to lead

1003-429: Is obvious then the object and subject can be in any order. This means that VOS is a very frequent alternative structure. In addition to when a sentence simply couldn't work with the subject and object's roles swapped, the subject is considered obvious when both participants are human and one possesses the other. For example, in kʷənáŋəts cə swéʔwəs cə táns , literally 'helped the boy his mother' (The boy helped his mother),

1062-487: Is usually used to refer to Clallam County, Washington. It is also used in the names of a number of non-native commercial enterprises. The spellings with 'K' are used to refer to the native peoples. The Lower Elwha tribe has adopted "Klallam" as its official spelling. The Port Gamble and Jamestown tribes have adopted "S'Klallam" as their official spelling. Before the arrival of Europeans to the Pacific Northwest

1121-552: The Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) established Fort Vancouver on the Columbia River . There was little traffic between the Klallam and the fort. The only serious incident between the two occurred in 1828 when five white men were killed by a number of Klallam, two of which had been serving as guides and had been mistreated by the white men. In response a party of about 60 men from Fort Vancouver visited Klallam territory and attacked

1180-457: The IPA , with its orthography in brackets where different: In Klallam, strings of consonants are acceptable both at the beginning and ends of syllables. In the onset, consonant clusters are rather unstructured, so words like ɬq̕čšɬšáʔ "fifty" can exist without problem. Similarly, codas can contain similar clusters of consonants, as in sx̣áʔəstxʷ "to dislike something" (wherein the unstressed schwa

1239-606: The Presidio of Monterey , Las Californias , which he reached on August 28, 1774. After a brief stay, he continued on to reach San Blas on November 5, 1774, thus completing his expedition. In 1775, a second expedition under Bruno de Heceta and Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra was organized. Pérez participated as piloto of Heceta's ship, the Santiago . Pérez died on the return journey, on November 3, 1775, between Monterey, California and San Blas. Juan Perez Sound , off

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1298-526: The Salishan family. Affixation is common for both verbs and nouns, and affixes provide temporal, case, and aspectual information. Every word contains at least one root. For example, the Klallam word ʔəsxʷaʔnáʔyaʔŋəs ('smiling') includes prefixes , suffixes and an infix . In its component parts, /ʔəs-xʷ-naʔnáʔ-yaʔ-ŋ-əs/ means "be in a state of small laughing on the face" or more simply, "smiling". There are many forms of prefix, suffix, and infix; below are

1357-937: The United States and one band government in Canada . Two Klallam tribes, the Jamestown S'Klallam and Lower Elwha Klallam , live on the Olympic Peninsula , and one, the Port Gamble S'Klallam , on the Kitsap Peninsula in Washington state. In Canada, the Scia'new First Nation is based at Becher Bay on southern Vancouver Island in British Columbia . The Klallam-language name for

1416-620: The Viceroyalty of New Spain (present day Mexico ), and acquired the rank of ensign ( alférez ). Confident of their territorial claims, the Spanish Empire did not explore or settle the northwest coast of North America in the 250 years after being claimed for the crown by Vasco Núñez de Balboa . By the late 18th century; however, learning of Russian and British arrivals along the Pacific Northwest and Alaskan coasts, Spain finally grew sufficiently concerned about their claims to

1475-594: The Duke of York—many Klallam were given royal names by whites who had difficulty pronouncing Klallam names—was taken by a ship captain on a visit to San Francisco , returning very impressed. In the early 1850s many settlers came to Port Townsend and elsewhere in the region. By 1853 there were sawmills operating at Port Townsend, Port Gamble , and Port Ludlow . A small settlement was established in Klallam territory near Dungeness Spit and present-day Sequim . These early settlers, who lived in conditions little better, or worse than

1534-788: The Jamestown project. Today there are several other Klallam groups, such as the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe , the Port Gamble Band of S'Klallam Indians , and, in Canada, the Scia'new First Nation . The rugged terrain and dense vegetation of the Olympic Peninsula made the canoe the preferred mode of transportation. The canoes were carved from western red cedar ( Thuja plicata ) through an intricate and arduous process requiring great skill, beginning with

1593-415: The Klallam in purchasing their own land and create their own community. He and other leading Klallam collected enough money to purchase a parcel of 250 acres, in 1874, and found a town they named Jamestown, after James Balch. This was very unusual for the time, not least because Native people were legally barred from buying land at the time. By doing this and not moving to the Skokomish Reservation they gave up

1652-559: The Klallam regularly raided their neighbors but had almost completely stopped using clubs and bows. The Klallam had many tools and utensils of European manufacture. They were growing potatoes in cultivated fields. The fur trade, formerly vital, was almost extinct. Slavery and potlatching were still practiced. In 1855 the Klallam, along with the Skokomish and the surviving Chimakum, signed the Point No Point Treaty . Under

1711-431: The Klallam, began selling large amounts of liquor to the Klallam, which quickly had deleterious effects. The ethnologist George Gibbs visited the Klallam in 1855. He reported their population as 926 and blamed alcohol and disease for their population decline. Although his count was probably too low, the Klallam population was significantly reduced from earlier times, mostly due to alcohol and disease. According to Gibbs,

1770-640: The North Kitsap School District in the Kingston area. Klallam language Klallam is closely related to the Northern Straits Salish dialects, Sooke , Lekwungen , Saanich , Lummi , and Samish but the languages are not mutually intelligible . There were several dialects of Klallam, including Elwha Klallam, Becher Bay Klallam, Jamestown S'Klallam and Little Boston S'Klallam. The first Klallam dictionary

1829-520: The Pacific Northwest coast, the Klallam held potlatches , which played a large role in determining social status. Europeans first began to explore the Pacific Northwest coast with Juan Pérez in 1774, James Cook in 1778, and many others, especially maritime fur traders , from the 1780s on. Early explorers did not enter the Strait of Juan de Fuca or make direct contact with the Klallam. By

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1888-667: The Pacific coast, for whaling, transporting larger loads, and carrying up to thirty passengers. Early white settlers in the area noted the great skill the Klallam used in canoe handling and navigation, and that the Klallam canoes tended to be larger than those used by other Puget Sound tribes. The lands, rivers, marine waters, and beaches in Klallam territory provided an abundant, year-round supply of food. Strategic intertribal marriages and agreements also allowed them permission to hunt or forage outside their homeland. Though their diet included large and small land game, sea fowl, and shellfish,

1947-516: The Tsimshian a few years earlier. Before the attack the Klallam debated over how the white settlers would react, but after some hesitation the attack was carried out in the traditional manner. One Klallam man was killed, which led to arguments among the Klallam who in the end threw away their trophies and went home dejected. A few were arrested by white settlers and sentenced to hard labor at the Skokomish Reservation, but they were not held for long and

2006-522: The Twana, or Skokomish , near the southern end of Hood Canal . After this the Klallam occupied the former Chimakum territory, which was the northeastern part of the Olympic Peninsula, especially on the Quimper Peninsula, where Port Townsend is today, and along northern Hood Canal. The first white settler of Port Townsend arrived in 1850. That same year the Klallam chief Chetzemoka , known as

2065-399: The actor. For example, in c̕áʔkʷ cn ʔaʔ cə nətán "I got washed by my mother", the root is unmarked and the subject cn is a patient while the agent is the object of the oblique preposition ʔaʔ , but in c̕áʔkʷt cn cə nəŋənaʔ "I washed my child", the -t transitive suffix marks that the agent subject, cn is in control of the action. In a similar manner, the transitivizer -nəxʷ indicates

2124-474: The age of 103. Hazel Sampson had worked along with brother Ed Sampson (d. 1995), Tom Charles (d. 1999), Bea Charles (d. 2009) and Adeline Smith (d. 2013), other native speakers of Klallam, and with language teacher Jamie Valadez and linguist Timothy Montler from 1992 to compile the Klallam Dictionary. In 1999, this effort led to the development of a lesson plan and guidebooks to teach students

2183-636: The basics of the language through storytelling. In 2015, a complete grammar of Klallam was published for second language instruction and preservation of the language. Bilingual English-Klallam street signs were installed at two intersections in Port Angeles in 2016. In 2020, Donald Sullivan, a member of the Port Gamble S'Klallam Tribe , installed street signs in Klallam alongside existing English ones in Little Boston . Klallam has four phonemic vowels: The 36 consonants of Klallam written in

2242-426: The estimated number of Klallam villages has ranged from ten to over thirty, with some ambiguity in distinguishing permanent from seasonal settlements, and some villages with mixed or disputed tribal identity. While language and tradition united the Klallam people, there were extensive trade, inter-marriage, and other forms of cooperation between the Klallam and surrounding tribes. Like many other indigenous peoples of

2301-640: The first group they found, killing seven including women and children, and burning their house. Then, with the help of an HBC ship they attacked, plundered, and destroyed a Klallam village near Dungeness Spit . HBC records say they killed 25 Klallam altogether. In 1832 the HBC trading post Fort Nisqually was established on the southern shore of Puget Sound , in what is the city of DuPont today. Fort records indicate that Klallam were visiting to trade furs and game by 1833. Between 1833 and 1835 Klallam parties visited Fort Nisqually at least nine times, and more regularly in

2360-464: The following decade. During the same period an HBC trading party visited Klallam territory. This party found the Klallam mostly unwilling to sell furs, saying the HBC's prices were too low and that they would instead wait for some other, more competitive trader. Paul Kane visited Fort Nisqually and the larger region in 1847. His descriptions of the Klallam indicate that they still practiced slavery, had given up bows and arrows for guns, that duck netting

2419-445: The indigenous population, including the first trade of trade goods. Again, he did not go ashore, this time because of bad weather that almost ran his ship aground. Pérez was accompanied by Fray Juan Crespí and his assistant Fray Tomas de la Pena Y Saravia. Pérez gave the name of Cerro Nevado de Santa Rosalía ("Snowy Peak of Saint Rosalia ") to present day Mount Olympus in the U.S. state of Washington . Pérez continued south to

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2478-472: The long-standing Spanish claim to the Pacific Northwest. Rumors of Russian fur traders caused the Spanish to send the frigate Santiago north under the command of Pérez, with a crew mostly from New Spain. Pérez was given explicit instructions to treat all indigenous peoples with respect, and to establish friendly relations with any encountered. In July 1774, he reached 54°40' north latitude , just off

2537-425: The most important source of food was fish. Salmon still plays a significant nutritional and spiritual role in the Klallam culture. The Klallam fished year round using a variety of tools and techniques particular to the species, location, and season. They were known to use traps , trolling , gillnets , spears , rakes, dip nets , and holes dug in the beach. Specific locations were known to produce certain fishes at

2596-426: The mother is possessed by the boy and therefore cannot be the subject. In this case, the sentence could also be written as kʷənáŋəts cə táns cə swéʔwəs , inverting the object and the subject. When an adjective is involved in a noun phrase, it comes before the noun it describes. After the first verb, either the main verb or an auxiliary verb, often there are one or more enclitic particles, which can indicated tense and

2655-468: The northwestern tip of Langara Island , one of the islands of Haida Gwaii . There he had an interaction with a group of Haida natives, but he did not go ashore. Due to a lack of provisions and the poor health of his crew, Pérez turned south at this point despite the viceroy's orders to attain 60° north. He reached Nootka Sound on August 7, 1774 (at about 49.6° north latitude), part of today's Vancouver Island and had an extended set of interactions with

2714-473: The possibility of federal assistance of any kind. For many decades Jamestown was one of the few examples of a Native settlement fully owned and managed by the native people themselves, with no governmental assistance or oversight. In 1981, over a century later, and after six years of effort to gain official recognition as a tribe, the federal government agreed, resulting in the federally recognized Jamestown S'Klallam Tribe of Washington . Some Klallam never joined

2773-432: The punishment was generally considered to have been mild. After Gibbs's questionable census of 1855, which counted 926 Klallam, somewhat better censuses were conducted in the 1860s and 1870s. It appears that from initial contact to about 1862 the Klallam population declined but not too severely. Between 1862 and 1878 a more rapid decline occurred—from about 1,300 to 597. By 1870 most Klallam lived near Dungeness Spit and what

2832-457: The region and set out to discover the extent of any colonial Russian and British encroachment. In early 1774, the Viceroy of New Spain, Antonio María Bucareli y Ursúa , commanded Pérez to explore the Pacific coast with the objective of reaching 60° north latitude (about the latitude of present-day Cordova, Alaska ) to discover possible Russian America and British settlements and to re-assert

2891-835: The right time of year, and special implements and skills were employed for a successful catch. They apply a poultice of the smashed flowers of Viola adunca to the chest or side for pain. The Klallam tribes do not operate their own schools. Lower Elwha Klallam children are offered a Klallam cultural and language immersion program at the Lower Elwha Klallam Head Start. Older children are provided with Klallam language and tribal history courses at Dry Creek Elementary School, Stevens Middle School and Port Angeles High School, where most Lower Elwha Klallam children attend school. A majority of Jamestown S'Klallam children attend Sequim School District schools. A majority of Port Gamble S'Klallam children attend schools in

2950-523: The selection of the proper tree. Stone adzes, fire, and heated water were used to hollow and shape the canoe. This knowledge was passed to a select few of each generation, and some of the canoes were purchased from other tribes, especially the larger ones. There were two main types of canoes used by the Klallam: The smaller Coast Salish type used on protected waters, and the larger Chinook style for use in rougher waters. The smaller type of canoe had

3009-604: The territory inhabited by the Klallam stretched across the north coast of the Olympic Peninsula from the mouth of the Hoko River on the west to Port Discovery Bay on the east. There were also some Klallam living across the Strait of Juan de Fuca on Vancouver Island , in or near today's Saanich , Sooke , and Beecher Bay . Klallam villages were mostly located along the coast, while some villages were inland along rivers, inlets or large lakes. Based on early interviews of tribal elders by early ethnologists and anthropologists,

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3068-545: The time direct contact was made, sometime before 1789, the Klallam had already heard about the European newcomers. Charles William Barkley was the first European known to have entered the Strait of Juan de Fuca, in 1787. Robert Gray reached Clallam Bay in 1789. From 1790 to 1792 the Spanish, based at Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island, made multiple expeditions into the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Manuel Quimper reached Port Discovery Bay in 1790. In 1791 Francisco de Eliza led

3127-460: The treaty the Klallam were supposed to give up their land and move to the Skokomish Reservation, near today's Skokomish, Washington , in exchange for government aid in the form of rations and instruction. However the Klallam never made this move and remained in their territory along the northern coast of the Olympic Peninsula. Clallam County was established in 1854, but its population and infrastructure remained minimal for decades. Around 1860 there

3186-608: The tribe is nəxʷsƛ̕áy̕əm̕ (meaning "strong people"). According to the oral history of the Klallam, the name was earned after the tribe won a challenge around hoisting a log onto a house. They put the log in the water, and then floated it onto their shoulders. When they came back with the log, other tribes started cheering "strong people." There exists a wide variety of English spellings including "Chalam," "Clalam," "Clallem," "Clallum," "Khalam," "Klalam," "Noodsdalum," "Nooselalum," "Noostlalum," "Tlalum," "Tlalam," "Wooselalim," "S'Klallam," "Ns'Klallam," "Klallam" and "Clallam." "Clallam"

3245-609: Was an 18th-century Spanish explorer. He was the first known European to sight, examine, name, and record the islands near present-day British Columbia , Canada. Born in Palma de Mallorca , Spain, he first served as a piloto in western Spanish colonial North America on Manila galleons en route to and from the Philippines in the Spanish East Indies . In 1768, he was assigned to the Pacific port of San Blas , in

3304-531: Was common, shell money was still valued, and shamanism still practiced. One village he visited was fortified and inhabited by about 200 Klallam. In 1847 about 150 Klallam warriors joined with Suquamish led by Chief Seattle in a major attack on the Chimakum people, intending to wipe them out completely. They largely succeeded, destroying the last Chimakum villages and leaving nearly everyone dead or enslaved. The few surviving Chimakum fled and subsequently joined

3363-482: Was published in 2012. Port Angeles High School , in Port Angeles, Washington , offers Klallam classes, taught as a heritage language "to meet graduation and college entrance requirements." Beginning fall 2020, the Klallam language has been taught at Peninsula College in Port Angeles. The last native speaker of Klallam as a first language was Hazel Sampson of Port Angeles , who died on February 4, 2014, at

3422-406: Was smallpox among the Klallam, but it is not known how serious it was. The last act of intertribal warfare involving the Klallam occurred in 1869. A band of over thirty Tsimshian , men, women, and children, were killed on Dungeness Spit by a group of about twenty Klallam men. One Tsimshian woman survived by pretending to be dead. The attack was in retaliation for the abduction of some Klallam women by

3481-748: Was used by the Washington Territory legislature in 1854 when it created Clallam County . The following year "S'klallam" was used in the Point No Point Treaty . In the following decades the simpler "Klallam" or "Clallam" predominated in the media and research literature. In 1981 "S'Klallam" was used when the United States Department of the Interior officially recognized the Lower Elwha , Jamestown, and Port Gamble (or Little Boston ) tribes. In local media today "Clallam"

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