135-398: Cross Green is an area in the east of Otley , England , and the location of a multi-use sports stadium . The stadium is currently used mostly for rugby union matches and is the home ground of Otley R.U.F.C. It is on the eastern edge of the town, off Pool Road and is close to the new Asda supermarket. Otley RUFC has its own car park. Cross Green is also the home of Otley Cricket Club ,
270-526: A Brass Band who perform at many events in the town. It is not a regular contesting band, but won first prize in the unregistered section at their first contest at Hardraw Scar in September 2007 and again in 2008. Since then they have competed in the 1st to 3rd section winning Second prize and Best March in 2014. Otley hosts the annual Otley Folk Festival in September, a Victorian Fayre in December,
405-609: A 15th-century well in the beer garden. Otley is "Hotton" in the ITV television soap opera Emmerdale , and appears in ITV 's Heartbeat where Otley Courthouse is the old Police Station. ITV's DCI Banks also regularly filmed in the town. Otley was also the setting for the drama series The Chase and the ITV dramatisation of The Bad Mother's Handbook . Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC Yorkshire and ITV Yorkshire . Television signals are received from
540-660: A Yorkshire building or structure is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about an English sports venue is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Otley Otley is a market town and civil parish at a bridging point on the River Wharfe , in the City of Leeds metropolitan borough in West Yorkshire , England. Historically a part of the West Riding of Yorkshire ,
675-740: A carnival in June, and, in May, what is reputed to be the oldest one day agricultural show in the country. This celebrated its bicentenary in 2009. There is a beer festival , organised by the church, in November. Otley has four Scout troops, Otley Parish, Otley Bridge, 2nd Otley, and Otley Methodist Scouts. An Army Cadet Force detachment is also located in the town. In January 2013 The Guardian newspaper featured an article in its Weekend section entitled Let's move to Otley, West Yorkshire . The Black Horse Hotel (original demolished, current from 1901 and
810-535: A conquest remains very influential. In contrast, Gildas did not explain what happened to the Saxons after the initial wars. (Gildas, in discussing the spiritual life of Britain does however mention that because of the partition ( divortium ) of the country caused by barbarians, citizens ( cives ) were prevented from worshipping at the shrines of the martyrs in St Albans and Caerleon . ) He reported instead that Britain
945-417: A continuation in sub-Roman Britain, with control over its own political and military destiny for well over a century, is that of Kenneth Dark, who suggests that the sub-Roman elite survived in culture, politics and military power up to c. 570 . Bede, however, identifies three phases of settlement: an exploration phase, when mercenaries came to protect the resident population; a migration phase, which
1080-753: A defence against an invasion of Picts and Saxons in 429. By about 430 the archaeological record in Britain begins to indicate a relatively rapid melt-down of Roman material culture, and its replacement by Anglo-Saxon material culture. At some time between 445 and 454 Gildas , writing some generations later, reported that the Britons also wrote to the Roman military leader Aëtius in Gaul, begging for assistance, with no success. In desperation, an un-named "proud tyrant" subsequently invited Saxons to Britain to help defend it from
1215-490: A diversity associated with language. Beyond these, in the early Anglo-Saxon period, identity was local: although people would have known their neighbours, it may have been important to indicate tribal loyalty with details of clothing and especially fasteners. It is sometimes hard in thinking about the period to avoid importing anachronistic 19th-century ideas of nationalism: in fact it is unlikely that people would have thought of themselves as Anglo-Saxon – instead they were part of
1350-496: A framework assuming that many Brittonic-speakers shifted to English, for example over whether at least some Germanic-speaking peasant-class immigrants must have been involved to bring about the language-shift ; what legal or social structures (such as enslavement or apartheid -like customs) might have promoted the high status of English; and precisely how slowly Brittonic (and British Latin) disappeared in different regions. An idiosyncratic view that has won extensive popular attention
1485-410: A glimpse into the relationship between people, land, and the tribes and groups into which they had organised themselves. The individual units in the list developed from the settlement areas of tribal groups, some of which are as little as 300 hides. The names are difficult to locate: places such as East wixna and Sweord ora . What it reveals is that micro-identity of tribe and family is important from
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#17327971755961620-628: A loose congregation of buildings around the two focal points of the manor house by the bridge and the church. An important reason for the town's location was a water supply, the Calhead Beck (now covered over) which ran down from Otley Chevin over Whitley Croft, a little East of the church and then to the river near the bridge. The town grew in the first half of the 13th century when the archbishops laid out burgage (freehold) plots to attract merchants and tradespeople. The burgage plots were on Boroughgate, Walkergate and Kirkgate. This began to create
1755-433: A native British chieftain and his war band adopting Anglo-Saxon culture and language. The incidence of British Celtic personal names in the royal genealogies of a number of "Anglo-Saxon" dynasties is very suggestive of the latter process. The Wessex royal line was traditionally founded by a man named Cerdic , an undoubtedly Celtic name identical to Ceretic , the name given to two British kings, and ultimately derived from
1890-468: A new "Anglo-Saxon" culture (one with parallels in northern Germany) had indeed become prominent in Britain by the 430s, well before the 450s as reported by Bede. Historians such as Halsall have also pointed out that a Germanic population may have already been present under Roman rule for many years before 430 without this being obvious in the archaeological record, because of the prestige which Roman material culture still had. In Bede's semi-mythical account
2025-533: A number of hides to each one. A hide was an amount of land sufficient to support a household. The list of tribes is headed by Mercia and consists almost exclusively of peoples who lived south of the Humber estuary and territories that surrounded the Mercian kingdom, some of which have never been satisfactorily identified by scholars. The document is problematic, but extremely important for historians, as it provides
2160-517: A number of features of the Regnal List and Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for the fifth and sixth centuries clearly contradict the idea that they constitute a reliable record. Some of the information there may contain a kernel of truth if the obvious fictions are rejected (such as the claim that Portsmouth took its name from an invader, Port, who arrived in 501), such as the sequence of the events associated with Ælle of Sussex (albeit not necessarily
2295-469: A population of 24,000, and Otley itself has a population of 14,348, according to the Census 2001 . Otley lies 28 miles (45 km) south-west of York, 10 miles (16 km) north-west of Leeds, 10 miles (16 km) north-east of Bradford, and 196 miles (315 km) from London. The town lies in lower Wharfedale , at a bridging point over the River Wharfe where there is a seven-arched medieval bridge, and
2430-414: A significant number of items now in phases before this historically set date. Archaeological evidence for the emergence of both a native British identity and the appearance of a Germanic culture in Britain in the 5th and 6th centuries must consider first the period at the end of Roman rule. The collapse of Roman material culture some time in the early 5th century left a gap in the archaeological record that
2565-659: A source with the Anglian list). The Regnal List was in turn a source for the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , the relevant sections of which were edited into their surviving form in the later ninth century. The Chronicle also includes various more detailed entries for the fifth and sixth centuries that ostensibly constitute historical evidence for a migration, Anglo-Saxon elites, and various significant historical events. However, Barbara Yorke , Patrick Sims-Williams , and David Dumville , among others, have demonstrated how
2700-452: A tribe or region, descendants of a patron or followers of a leader. It is this identity that archaeological evidence seeks to understand and determine, considering how it might support separate identity groups, or identities that were inter-connected. Part of a well-furnished pagan-period mixed, inhumation-cremation, cemetery at Alwalton near Peterborough was excavated in 1999. Twenty-eight urned and two unurned cremations dating from between
2835-554: A type issued to late Roman forces, which have been found both in late Roman contexts, such as the Roman cemeteries of Winchester and Colchester , and in purely 'Anglo-Saxon' rural cemeteries like Mucking (Essex), though this was at a settlement used by the Romano-British. The distribution of the earliest Anglo-Saxon sites and place names in close proximity to Roman settlements and roads has been interpreted as showing that initial Anglo-Saxon settlements were being controlled by
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#17327971755962970-481: Is Stephen Oppenheimer 's suggestion that the lack of Celtic influence on English is because the ancestor of English was already widely spoken in Britain by the Belgae before the end of the Roman period. However, Oppenheimer's ideas have not been found helpful in explaining the known facts: there is no evidence for a well established Germanic language in Britain before the fifth century, and Oppenheimer's idea contradicts
3105-570: Is a list of 35 tribes that was compiled in Anglo-Saxon England some time between the seventh and ninth centuries. The inclusion of the ' Elmet -dwellers' suggests to Simon Keynes that the Tribal Hideage was compiled in the early 670s, during the reign of King Wulfhere , since Elmet seems to have reverted thereafter to Northumbrian control. It includes a number of independent kingdoms and other smaller territories and assigns
3240-526: Is close to Leeds and may have formed part of the kingdom of Elmet . Remains of the Archbishop's Palace were found during the construction of St Joseph's Primary School. As in other areas of the north, the Norman Conquest largely laid waste this area. The Saxon church was replaced by a Norman one, but this contains much Saxon sculpture. Thus in the 11th and 12th century Otley would have been
3375-556: Is derived from Otto, Otho, Othe, or Otta, a Saxon personal name and leah , a woodland clearing in Old English . It was recorded as Ottanlege in 972 and Otelai or Othelia in the Domesday Book of 1086. The name Chevin has close parallels to the early Brythonic Welsh term Cefn meaning ridge and may be a survival of the ancient Cumbric language. There are pre-historic settlement finds alongside both sides of
3510-513: Is now residences). Another Primitive Church on Craven Street opened in 1901 and closed in the early 1950s. It is now the headquarters of 2nd Otley Scouts, and is known as the Chevin Community Centre. An 1890 Quaker meeting house on Cross Green is now a Gospel Hall . Other Christian groups meet in members' homes or rented rooms. Otley has a diverse range of cultural organisations. It has five active Morris dance sides,
3645-475: Is seen as Britain's first true historian, in that he cited his references and listed events according to dates rather than regnal lists. Because of this we know that he relied heavily on Gildas for early events. It has been suggested that Bede based his dating of the arrival of Horsa and Hengist upon the report in Gildas that the invitation to the foederati happened after the Britons first implored Aëtius when he
3780-599: Is strikingly different from, for example, post-Roman Gaul, Iberia, or North Africa, where Germanic-speaking invaders gradually switched to local languages. Old English shows little obvious influence from Celtic or spoken Latin: there are for example vanishingly few English words of Brittonic origin . Moreover, except in Cornwall , the vast majority of place-names in England are easily etymologised as Old English (or Old Norse , due to later Viking influence), demonstrating
3915-633: Is surrounded by arable farmland . The historic town developed on the south bank of the Wharfe, but in the 20th century Otley expanded north of the river, to include new developments at Newall and the Weston Estate. The south side of the valley is dominated by a gritstone escarpment overlooking Otley called the Chevin and to the north is Newall Carr. In 1944, Major Le G.G.W. Horton Fawkes of Farnley Hall donated 263 acres (106 ha) of land on
4050-491: Is that political dominance by a fairly small number of Old English-speakers could have driven large numbers of Britons to adopt Old English while leaving little detectable trace of this language-shift. The collapse of Britain's Roman economy and administrative structures seems to have left Britons living in a technologically similar society to their Anglo-Saxon neighbours, making it unlikely that Anglo-Saxons would need to borrow words for unfamiliar concepts. If Old English became
4185-550: Is too easy to consider Anglo-Saxon archaeology solely as a study of ethnology and to fail to consider that identity is "less related to an overall Anglo-Saxon ethnicity and more to membership of family or tribe, Christian or pagan, elite or peasant". "Anglo-Saxons" or "Britons" were no more homogeneous than nationalities are today, and they would have exhibited diverse characteristics: male/female, old/young, rich/poor, farmer/warrior—or even Gildas ' patria (fellow citizens), cives (indigenous people) and hostes (enemies)—as well as
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4320-583: The Chronica Gallica of 452 , a chronicle written in Gaul , Britain was ravaged by Saxon invaders in 409 or 410. This was only a few years after Constantine "III" was declared Roman emperor in Britain, and during the period that he was still leading British Roman forces in rebellion on the continent. Although the rebellion was eventually quashed, the Romano-British citizens reportedly expelled their Roman officials during this period, and never again re-joined
4455-461: The Brittonic *Caraticos. This may indicate that Cerdic was a native Briton, and that his dynasty became anglicised over time. A number of Cerdic's alleged descendants also possessed Celtic names, including the ' Bretwalda ' Ceawlin . The last occurrence of a British name in this dynasty was that of King Caedwalla , who died as late as 689. The British name Caedbaed is found in the pedigree of
4590-689: The Danes , the " Huns " ( Pannonian Avars in this period, whose influence stretched north to Slavic-speaking areas in central Europe), the "old Saxons" ( antiqui Saxones ), and the " Boructuari " who are presumed to be inhabitants of the old lands of the Bructeri , near the Lippe river. The vision of the Anglo-Saxons exercising extensive political and military power which excluded Britons at such an early date remains contested. The most developed vision of
4725-750: The Leeds North West constituency of the UK Parliament and is represented by MP Katie White of the Labour Party . It is part of the Otley & Yeadon ward on Leeds City Council and is represented by three Liberal Democrat Councillors Ryk Downes, Colin Campbell & Sandy Lay. It is twinned with the French town of Montereau-Fault-Yonne , south of Paris. Otley and Wharfedale ward has
4860-545: The Picts and Scots . After a long war, he reported that the Romano-British recovered control. Peace was restored, but Britain was now ruled by tyrants. It had internal conflicts instead of conflicts with foreigners, but because of foreigners it was still difficult for Britons to travel to some parts of England and Wales. He gives no other information about Saxons or other Germanic people before or after this specific conflict. No other local written records survive until much later. By
4995-565: The phonology , morphology , and syntax of Old English (as well as on whether British Latin-speakers influenced the Brittonic languages, perhaps as they fled westwards from Anglo-Saxon domination into highland areas of Britain). These arguments have not yet, however, become consensus views. Thus a 2012 synthesis concludes that 'the evidence for Celtic influence on Old English is somewhat sparse, which only means that it remains elusive, not that it did not exist'. Debate continues within
5130-615: The "Navvies' Monument", a replica of the entrance to Bramhope Tunnel , a monument to those killed during its construction. Inside the church is the tomb of the grandparents of Thomas Fairfax who commanded Parliament's forces at the Battle of Marston Moor in 1644. The Bridge Church was originally the Salem Chapel, built in 1826, being for many years the Congregational Church but having its present name from 1972 with
5265-695: The "War of the Saxon Federates". It ended after the siege at 'Mons Badonicus' . (The price of peace, Higham argues, was a better treaty for the Saxons, giving them the ability to receive tribute from people across the lowlands of Britain. ) Gildas did not report the year of this invitation. Possibly referring to some phase in these same events, the Chronica Gallica of 452 records for the year 441: "The British provinces, which to this time had suffered various defeats and misfortunes, are reduced to Saxon rule." However, Bede, writing centuries later, reasoned that these soldiers arrived only in 449, and he named
5400-492: The "proud tyrant" as Vortigern . Bede's understanding of these events has been questioned. For example, he reports St Germanus coming to Britain after this conflict began, although he would have been dead by then. The Historia Brittonum , written in the 9th century, gives two different years, but was apparently based on the idea that it happened in 428, possibly based on the real date of the visit of Germanus in 429. In fact, both textual and archaeological evidence indicates that
5535-519: The 13th, 14th and 18th century, with the Tower Clock dating from 1793. This church was the centre of an ancient ecclesiastical parish which comprised the chapelries of Baildon , Bramhope , Burley in Wharfedale , Denton , and Farnley , and the townships of Esholt , Hawksworth , Lindley , Menston , Newall with Clifton , Pool-in-Wharfedale , and Little Timble . The graveyard contains
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5670-450: The 5th and 6th centuries, and 34 inhumations, dating from between the late 5th and early 7th centuries, were uncovered. Both cremations and inhumations were provided with pyre or grave goods, and some of the burials were richly furnished. The excavation found evidence for a mixture of practices and symbolic clothing; these reflected local differences that appeared to be associated with tribal or family loyalty. This use of clothing in particular
5805-546: The Chevin to the people of Otley. This has been expanded to 700 acres (280 ha) and constitutes Chevin Forest Park . It was from a quarry on the Chevin that the foundation stones for the Houses of Parliament were hewn. To the east and west of Otley are flooded gravel pits, where sand and gravel have been extracted in the 20th century. The gravel pits to the east at Knotford Nook are a noted birdwatching site. Those to
5940-457: The Fawkes family. It originally had an open-air swimming pool. Opposite on the south side is the much smaller Tittybottle Park, originally designated Manor Park in 1909 but it acquired its popular (and now official) name for its popularity with mothers and nannies. On the south side westward, is Manor Garth Park, formerly part of the land of the manor house. About 0.6 miles (1 km) east of
6075-676: The First World War there was a general shortage of housing in Britain, and much of it was crowded slums. Otley Council prepared one of the first subsidized housing schemes, commencing with relatively open land in Newall on the North of the river in 1920. The 1920s also saw the beginnings of the conversion of properties to a sewer drainage system, and electric lighting instead of gas on the streets. Further estates followed and by 1955 there were more than 1,000 council houses . Private housing
6210-594: The Jubilee Clock, which was erected in 1888 at a cost of £175. It has two plaques, one in memory to two locals killed in the Transvaal War and one expressing the gratitude of Belgian refugees who came to Otley during the First World War. Many of the buildings around are listed. A grammar school was founded by Royal Charter issued to Thomas Cave in 1607 by King James VI and I , who named it "The Grammar School of Prince Henry". The single storey building
6345-593: The Picts and Scots. Gildas recounts how these Saxons, initially stationed in the east, claimed that the British were not providing sufficient monthly supplies, and eventually overran the whole country. "After a certain length of time the cruel robbers returned to their home." ( Tempore igitur interveniente aliquanto, cum recessissent domum crudelissimi praedones .) The British then united successfully under Ambrosius Aurelianus , and struck back. Historian Nick Higham calls this
6480-648: The River Wharfe and it is believed the valley has been settled at this site since the Bronze Age. There are Bronze Age carvings on rocks situated on top of The Chevin: one such example is the Knotties Stone. West Yorkshire Geology Trust has reference to Otley Chevin and Caley Crags having a rich history of human settlement stretching back into Palaeolithic times. Flint tools, Bronze Age rock carvings and Iron Age earthworks have been found. In medieval times
6615-474: The River Wharfe to include Newall . Since local government reorganisation in 1974 Otley has been a civil parish in the metropolitan borough of the City of Leeds , in the county of West Yorkshire. The parish council has exercised its option to declare itself a town council . The town council and the Otley Museum were both based at Otley Civic Centre until the building closed in 2010. Otley lies in
6750-555: The Roman empire. Writing in the mid-sixth century, Procopius states that after the overthrow of Constantine "III" in 411, "the Romans never succeeded in recovering Britain, but it remained from that time under tyrants". The Romano-Britons nevertheless called upon the empire to help them fend off attacks from not only the Saxons , but also the Picts and Scoti . A hagiography of Saint Germanus of Auxerre claims that he helped command
6885-402: The Romano-British past, despite profound changes in material culture. A major genetic study in 2022 which used DNA samples from different periods and regions demonstrated that there was significant immigration from the area in or near what is now northwestern Germany, and also that these immigrants intermarried with local Britons. These studies indicate that in both the early medieval period and
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#17327971755967020-495: The Romano-British. Catherine Hills suggests it is not necessary to see all the early settlers as federate troops, and that this interpretation has been used rather too readily by some archaeologists. A variety of relationships could have existed between Romano-British and incoming Anglo-Saxons. The broader archaeological picture suggests that no one model will explain all the Anglo-Saxon settlements in Britain and that there
7155-594: The Royal White Horse Hotel (the former Barclays Bank (closed 2019), in Manor Square ) were the original posting houses and many of the others were coaching inns . By 1900 there were over 30 inns, and Otley was said to have "a pub on every corner". This reputation has continued into recent years with BBC Radio 4's statistics programme "More or Less" concluding that it had the greatest number per head of population. Today there are 20 pubs in
7290-602: The Saxons as invited soldiers in the past and says nothing of migrations, or of any ongoing conflict or even Saxon presence in his time. Instead, for their understanding of Anglo-Saxon settlement historians have often relied upon Bede the English monk, a much later author and scholar (672/673–735), who in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People , tried to compute dates for events in early Anglo-Saxon history. Although primarily writing about church history, Bede
7425-638: The Wharfedale Wayzgoose ( Border ), The Buttercross Belles (Ladies Northwest), Flash Company (Border, Molly , Appalachian & Clog ), Hellz Bellz (Contemporary) and Kitchen Taps (Appalachian Step). Drama groups include the Otley Community Players, Otley Youth Theatre (OY), and a thriving arts centre in the former courthouse. There is a poetry society, which meets monthly in the Black Horse Hotel. The town has
7560-442: The adoption of the language—as well as the material culture and traditions—of an Anglo-Saxon elite, "by large numbers of the local people seeking to improve their status within the social structure, and undertaking for this purpose rigorous acculturation", is the key to understanding the transition from Romano-British to Anglo-Saxon. The progressive nature of this language acquisition, and the 'retrospective reworking' of kinship ties to
7695-415: The ancestors, and John Shephard has extended this interpretation to Anglo-Saxon tumuli. Eva Thäte has emphasised the continental origins of monument reuse in post-Roman England, Howard Williams has suggested that the main purpose of this custom was to give sense to a landscape that the immigrants did not find empty. In the 7th and 8th centuries, monument reuse became so widespread that it strongly suggests
7830-434: The archaeological and genetic information. Furthermore, British Celtic languages had very little impact on Old English vocabulary, and this suggests that a large number of Germanic-speakers became important relatively suddenly. On the basis of such evidence it has even been argued that large parts of what is now England were cleared of prior inhabitants. However, a view that gained support in the late 20th century suggests that
7965-435: The areas that they settled. In recent decades, a few specialists have continued to support this interpretation, and Peter Schrijver has said that 'to a large extent, it is linguistics that is responsible for thinking in terms of drastic scenarios' about demographic change in late Roman Britain. But the consensus among experts in the first decades of the twenty-first century, influenced by research in contact linguistics ,
8100-462: The breakdown of the Roman economy, larger numbers arrived and their impact upon local culture and politics increased. Many questions remain about the scale, timing and nature of the Anglo-Saxon settlements, and also about what happened to the previous residents of what is now England. The available evidence includes not only the scant written record, which tells of a period of violence, but also
8235-599: The bridge is Gallows Hill, where the medieval gallows stood. Low-lying land by this was formerly a sewage works , but was bought by the Town Council in the 1980s and developed into Gallows Hill nature reserve . While markets have been held from at least 1227 it has only been in the current Market Place from about 1800. It contains the Buttercross (covered area for farm produce, now used for occasional charity events, otherwise rest and shelter for visitors) and
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#17327971755968370-524: The call to the "Angle or Saxon nation" ( Latin : Anglorum sive Saxonum gens ) was initially answered by three boats lead by two brothers, Hengist and Horsa ("Stallion and Horse"), and Hengist's son Oisc . They had a region assigned to them in the eastern part of Britain. A bigger fleet followed, from the three most powerful tribes of Germania, Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, and these were eventually followed by terrifying swarms. According to one well-known passage by Bede: In another passage Bede clarified that
8505-460: The chapter undermine its credibility as a clue to sixth-century population in Britain." The work of Gildas is based around a constant theme of blaming the Romano-British people for being the cause of their own distresses, with the Saxon conflict only being one example. Leading up to these events they had been rebellious within the Roman empire, supporting many usurpers who attempted to take control of
8640-538: The cleansing and finishing of woollen cloth on Watergate. The Chevin provided stone for building (and millstones) as well as bracken, wood and common grazing, while the river provided reeds for thatching houses. The woollen industry developed as a cottage industry but during the Industrial Revolution and the mechanisation of the textile industry, mills were built using water then steam power. A cotton mill and weaving shed for calicoes were built by
8775-604: The collapse of the Roman economy and administration. In Higham's assessment, "language was a key indicator of ethnicity in early England. In circumstances where freedom at law, acceptance with the kindred, access to patronage, and the use or possession of weapons were all exclusive to those who could claim Germanic descent, then speaking Old English without Latin or Brittonic inflection had considerable value". All linguistic evidence from Roman Britain suggests that most inhabitants spoke British Celtic and/or British Latin . However, by
8910-652: The continental ancestors of the Anglo-Saxons were more diverse, and they arrived over a long period. He named pagan peoples still living in Germany ( Germania ) in the eighth century "from whom the Angles or Saxons, who now inhabit Britain, are known to have derived their origin; for which reason they are still corruptly called Garmans by the neighbouring nation of the Britons": the Frisians , the Rugini (possibly from Rügen ),
9045-499: The culture of the Anglo-Saxons was not transplanted from there, but rather developed in Britain. In 400, the Roman province of Britannia had long been part of the Roman Empire . The imperial government and military forces had been divided by internal conflicts several times during the previous centuries, often because of usurpations beginning in Britain such as those of Magnus Maximus , and Constantine "III" . However, there
9180-510: The dates). Yet there is little basis for sifting truth from invention. As Dumville pointed out about the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , "medieval historiography has assumptions different from our own, particularly in terms of distinctions between fiction and non-fiction". Explaining linguistic change, and particularly the rise of Old English , is crucial in any account of the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain. According to Higham ,
9315-518: The dead in the early Anglo-Saxon landscape. Anglo-Saxon secondary activity on prehistoric and Roman sites was traditionally explained in practical terms. These explanations, in the view of Howard Williams , failed to account for the numbers and types of monuments and graves (from villas to barrows) reused. Anglo-Saxon barrow burials started in the late 6th century and continued into the early 8th century. Prehistoric barrows, in particular, have been seen as physical expressions of land claims and links to
9450-445: The deliberate location of burials of the elite next to visible monuments of the pre-Saxon past, but with 'ordinary' burial grounds of this phase also frequently being located next to prehistoric barrows. The relative increase of this kind of spatial association from the 5th/6th centuries to the 7th/8th centuries is conspicuous. Williams' analysis of two well-documented samples shows an increase from 32% to 50% of Anglo-Saxon burial sites in
9585-491: The development of a new Anglo-Saxon cultural identity and shared Germanic language , Old English , which was most closely related to Old Frisian on the other side of the North Sea . The first Germanic speakers to settle permanently are likely to have been soldiers recruited by the Roman administration, possibly already in the fourth century or earlier. In the early fifth century, after the end of Roman rule in Britain and
9720-405: The dominance of English across post-Roman England. Intensive research in recent decades on Celtic toponymy has shown that more names in England and southern Scotland have Brittonic, or occasionally Latin, etymologies than was once thought, but even so, it is clear that Brittonic and Latin place-names in the eastern half of England are extremely rare, and although they are noticeably more common in
9855-415: The dominant group led, ultimately, to the "myths which tied the entire society to immigration as an explanation of their origins in Britain". The consensus in the first decades of the twenty-first century was that the spread of English can be explained by a minority of Germanic-speaking immigrants becoming politically and socially dominant, in a context where Latin had lost its usefulness and prestige due to
9990-554: The downtrodden subjects of Anglo-Saxon oppression. This has been used by some linguists and archaeologists to produce invasion and settlement theories involving genocide, forced migration and enslavement. The depiction of the Britons in the Historia Ecclesiastica is influenced by the writing of Gildas, who viewed the Saxons as a punishment from God against the British people. Windy McKinney notes that "Bede focused on this point and extended Gildas' vision by portraying
10125-466: The eighth century, when extensive evidence for the post-Roman language situation is next available, it is clear that the dominant language in what is now eastern and southern England was Old English, whose West Germanic predecessors were spoken in what is now the Netherlands and northern Germany. Old English then continued spreading westwards and northwards in the ensuing centuries. This development
10260-417: The empire. These tyrants dominate the historical accounts of the fifth and sixth centuries and the work tells us much about the transition from magisterial to monarchical power in Britain. Gildas' remarks reflected his continuing concern regarding the vulnerability of his countrymen and their disregard and in-fighting: for example, "it was always true of this people (as it is now) that it was weak in beating off
10395-426: The end of Roman rule, and his De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae is therefore the most detailed and contemporary account available. However, it is a highly stylized critique of Romano-British politics, society and religion, which treats the Saxons as a punishment sent by God, and gives few details such as dates, and the sections might not have been intended to represent one single sequence of events. Gildas described
10530-519: The extensive evidence for the use of Celtic and Latin. While many studies admit that a substantial survival of native British people from lower social strata is probable, with these people becoming anglicised over time due to the action of "elite dominance" mechanisms, there is also evidence for the survival of British elites and their anglicisation. An Anglo-Saxon elite could be formed in two ways: from an incoming chieftain and his war band from northern Germania taking over an area of Britain, or through
10665-457: The first row of terraces by the newly formed Otley Building Society from 1847. Otley railway station opened in 1865 connecting goods and people to Leeds, with a connection to Bradford in 1875. At its peak it had 50 trains a day, but it was closed in 1965 under the Beeching cuts . Kirkgate was the first street to be paved in 1866, followed by sewers in 1869. The Wharfedale Printing Machine
10800-477: The forest park was used as common pasture land, as a source of wood and sandstones for buildings and walls. The majority of the early development of the town dates from Saxon times and was part of an extensive manor granted by King Æthelstan to the see of York . The Archbishops of York had a residence and were lords of the manor . Their palace was located on the site occupied by the Manor House. Otley
10935-576: The formation of the United Reformed Church . The church also operated a church hall in Newall Carr Road, some 1.5 miles (2.4 km) from the church, until the hall was declared redundant. Our Lady and All Saints Roman Catholic Church was opened in 1851. What is now Beech Hill Church started life in 1916 as 'Bethel Gospel Mission' and moved to its current location on Westgate in 2021. Methodist preacher John Wesley
11070-488: The gradual death of Celtic and spoken Latin in post-Roman Britain. Likewise, scholars have posited various mechanisms other than massive demographic change by which pre-migration Celtic place-names could have been lost. Scholars have stressed that Welsh and Cornish place-names from the Roman period seem no more likely to survive than English ones: 'clearly name loss was a Romano-British phenomenon, not just one associated with Anglo-Saxon incomers'. Other explanations for
11205-520: The ground lies to the side of the rugby field. Otley Athletics and Otley Badminton Club are also based at Cross Green. Cross Green was the site for the famous victory of the North of England over the All Blacks in 1979 and again in 1988 when the Wallabies were the victims of a North victory. The ground was used as a venue in the 1991 Rugby World Cup , hosting United States versus Italy . As
11340-534: The kings of Lindsey , which argues for the survival of British elites in this area also. In the Mercian royal pedigree, the name of King Penda and the names of other kings have more obvious Brittonic than Germanic etymologies, though they do not correspond to known Welsh personal names. Bede, in his major work, charts the careers of four upper-class brothers in the English Church; he refers to them as being Northumbrian , and therefore "English". However,
11475-423: The lack of works of archaeological synthesis for the Anglo-Saxon period in general, and the early period in particular. This is changing, with new works of synthesis and chronology, in particular the work of Catherine Hills and Sam Lucy on the evidence of Spong Hill , which has opened up the possible synthesis with continental material culture and has moved the chronology for the settlement earlier than AD 450, with
11610-522: The later Viking settlers , may have begun as piratical raiders who later seized land and made permanent settlements. Other settlers seem to have been much humbler people who had few if any weapons and suffered from malnutrition. These were characterised by Sonia Chadwick Hawkes as Germanic 'boat people', refugees from crowded settlements on the North Sea which deteriorating climatic conditions would have made untenable. Catherine Hills points out that it
11745-429: The layout of today, based on a triangle of these plots forming the streets. Bondgate was for the workers: bondsmen and tenants. A leper hospital was founded on the road to Harewood beyond Cross Green. As well as farming and use of woodland, important local activities were quarrying stone, and the manufacture of potash from bracken , used to make a soap which therefore supported a community carrying out fulling ,
11880-514: The local relay transmitter. Local radio stations are BBC Radio Leeds on 95.3 FM, Greatest Hits Radio Harrogate & The Yorkshire Dales on 107.1 FM, Capital Yorkshire on 105.6 FM, Heart Yorkshire on 107.6 FM, Drystone Radio on 102 FM and Rombalds Radio, a community based radio station that broadcast online. Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain The settlement of Great Britain by diverse Germanic peoples led to
12015-503: The love of God." Wesley Street is named after him. A chapel was established on Walkergate in about 1800, replaced by a larger one on Westgate in 1857: a third Chapel (now Trinity Methodist Church) was built on Boroughate in 1876. A Primitive Methodist Chapel opened on New Market in 1835, and became the Salvation Army Citadel which closed in 2019. A Primitive Church on Station Road opened in 1874 and closed in 1965 (it
12150-434: The migration involved relatively few individuals, possibly centred on a warrior elite, who popularized a non-Roman identity after the downfall of Roman institutions. This hypothesis suggests a large-scale acculturation of natives to the incoming language and material culture . In support of this, archaeologists have found that, despite evidence of violent disruption, settlement patterns and land use show many continuities with
12285-474: The modern period there were large regional variations, with the genetic impact of immigration highest in the east and declining towards the west. This evidence supports a theory of large-scale migration of both men and women, beginning in the Roman period and increasing in the early medieval period until the 8th century. This sits alongside evidence of rapid acculturation, with early medieval individuals of both local or migrant ancestry being buried near each other in
12420-543: The most prestigious language in a particular region, speakers of other languages may have found it advantageous to become bilingual and, over a few generations, stop speaking the less prestigious languages (in this case British Celtic and/or British Latin). A person or household might change language so as to serve an elite, or because it provided some advantage economically or legally. This account, which demands only small numbers of politically dominant Germanic-speaking migrants to Britain, has become 'the standard explanation' for
12555-937: The names of Saint Chad of Mercia (a prominent bishop) and his brothers Cedd (also a bishop), Cynibil and Caelin (a variant spelling of Ceawlin) are British rather than Anglo-Saxon. A good case can be made for southern Britain (especially Wessex, Kent, Essex and parts of Southern East Anglia), at least, having been taken over by dynasties having some Germanic ancestry or connections, but also having origins in, or intermarrying with, native British elites. Archaeologists seeking to understand evidence for migration and/or acculturation must first get to grips with early Anglo-Saxon archaeology as an "Archaeology of Identity". Guarding against considering one aspect of archaeology in isolation, this concept ensures that different topics are considered together, that previously were considered separately, including gender, age, ethnicity, religion, and status. The task of interpretation has been hampered by
12690-440: The outdoor pool was a popular leisure destination and was in use until 1993 when a fault with the pumping system precipitated its closure. In February 2016, in response to a Leeds City Council invitation for ‘Expressions of Interest' for the site of 'the former Otley Lido', a group of local residents launched an ongoing campaign to regenerate the site as a modern open air swimming pool and community centre. Until 2010 Otley Museum
12825-459: The pagan Anglo-Saxons not as God's scourge against the reprobate Britons, but rather as the agents of Britain's redemption. Therefore, the ghastly scenario that Gildas feared is calmly explained away by Bede; any rough treatment was necessary, and ordained by God, because the Britons had lost God's favour, and incurred his wrath." McKinney, who suggests that "Bede himself may not have been an ethnically 'pure' Angle," argues that his use of ethnic terms
12960-410: The passage of goods. Andrew Pearson suggests that the "Saxon Shore Forts" and other coastal installations played a more significant economic and logistical role than is often appreciated, and that the tradition of Saxon and other continental piracy, based on the name of these forts, is probably a myth. The archaeology of late Roman (and sub-Roman) Britain has been mainly focused on the elite rather than
13095-400: The peasant and slave: their villas, houses, mosaics, furniture, fittings, and silver plates. This group had a strict code on how their wealth was to be displayed, and this provides a rich material culture, from which "Britons" are identified. There was a large gap between richest and poorest; the trappings of the latter have been the focus of less archaeological study. However the archaeology of
13230-571: The peasant from the 4th and 5th centuries is dominated by "ladder" field systems or enclosures, associated with extended families, and in the South and East of England, the extensive use of timber-built buildings and farmsteads shows a lower level of engagement with Roman building methods than is shown by the houses of the numerically much smaller elite. Confirmation of the use of Anglo-Saxons as foederati or federate troops has been seen as coming from burials of Anglo-Saxons wearing military equipment of
13365-511: The population was 13,668 at the 2011 census. It is in two parts: south of the river is the historic town of Otley and to the north is Newall , which was formerly a separate township. The town is in lower Wharfedale on the A660 road which connects it to Leeds . The town is in the Otley and Yeadon ward of Leeds City Council and the Leeds North West parliamentary constituency . Otley's name
13500-417: The replacement of Roman period place-names include adaptation of Celtic names such that they now seem to come from Old English; a more gradual loss of Celtic names than was once assumed; and new names being coined (in the newly dominant English language) because instability of settlements and land-tenure. Extensive research is ongoing on whether British Celtic did exert subtle substrate influence on
13635-430: The river in the late 18th century. Later woolcombing and worsted spinning were introduced. By the mid 19th century 500 inhabitants were employed in two worsted-mills, a paper-mill, and other mills. A tannery was established in the 19th century. At this time the opening of the new Leeds Road and Bradford Road greatly increased access for trade. Many houses were built from the middle of the 19th century onwards, including
13770-505: The same new ways. One of the few written accounts of the period is by Gildas , who wrote in the early 6th century. His account influenced later works which became more elaborate and detailed, but which cannot be relied upon for this early period. He reported that a major conflict was triggered some generations before him, after a group of foreign Saxons was invited by the Romano-British leadership to help defend against raids from
13905-481: The stadium has a capacity of only 5,000 people, it was the smallest venue in the tournament that year. Cross Green is the host venue for Music Festival LS21 Live! which is a summer festival organized by GeHo Events. Sheffield band The Reverend and the Makers were the 2013 Headline Act. 53°54′29″N 1°41′14″W / 53.90806°N 1.68722°W / 53.90806; -1.68722 This article about
14040-585: The start. The list is evidence for more complex settlement than the single political entity of the other historical sources. In the eighth century, if not the seventh, Anglo-Saxon scholars began writing lists and genealogies of kings which purport to record their ancestry through the settlement period and beyond, prominently including the Anglian King-list and the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List (which may share
14175-544: The time of Bede , more than a century after Gildas, Anglo-Saxon kingdoms had come to dominate most of what is now modern England. Bede and other later Welsh and Anglo-Saxon authors apparently believed that the kingdoms of their time had always been distinctly Anglo-Saxon. However, many modern historians believe that the development of Anglo-Saxon culture and identity, and even its kingdoms, involved not only Germanic immigrants but also local British people and kingdoms. Although it involved immigrant communities from northern Europe,
14310-850: The town although the Roebuck (formerly known as the Spite ), the Chevin and the Royalty are on the outskirts, with the Roebuck located in North Yorkshire . Some of the oldest buildings have been demolished or replaced, but the Red Lion on Kirkgate dates from 1745, the Bowling Green from 1757 (originally a courthouse), the Rose & Crown (originally cottages) 1731. The Old Grammar School
14445-416: The town and outlying areas. The bridge is a 7 span stone bridge and Scheduled Ancient Monument , dating from 1228, which was rebuilt after the flood of 1673 and widened in 1776. In 1957 a concrete cantilevered footwalk was added to separate pedestrians from road traffic. On the north side eastwards, 2 miles of the riverbank is Wharfemeadows Park with extensive gardens on land donated to the town in 1924 by
14580-824: The town are the A660 to the south east, which connects Otley to Bramhope , Adel and Leeds city centre , and the A65 to the west, which goes to Ilkley and Skipton . The A6038 heads to Guiseley , Shipley and Bradford , connecting with the A65. To Harrogate , the A659 heads east to the A658, which is the main Bradford–Harrogate road. Otley bus station is run by West Yorkshire Metro and services are operated by First West Yorkshire , Harrogate Bus Company, Keighley Bus Company , and Connexionsbuses . There are local services connecting
14715-522: The town bypass follows the part of the line of the old railway. The trackbed between Burley in Wharfedale, Otley and Pool is to become a cycleway , footpath and equestrian route known as the Wharfedale Greenway , with possible extensions onward to Ilkley alongside the extant railway. Planning permission for the first phase of the greenway was granted in July 2020. The main roads through
14850-404: The use of peplos dress, or particular artistic styles found on artefacts such as those found at Alwalton, for evidence of pagan beliefs, or cultural memories of tribal or ethnic affiliation. The evidence for monument reuse in the early Anglo-Saxon period reveals a number of significant aspects of the practice. Ancient monuments were one of the most important factors determining the placing of
14985-463: The weapons of the enemy, but strong in putting up with civil war and the burden of sin." Gildas used the correct late Roman term for the Saxons, foederati , people who came to Britain under a well-used treaty system. This kind of treaty had been used elsewhere to bring people into the Roman Empire to move along the roads or rivers and work alongside the army. Gildas called them Saxons, which
15120-428: The west are devoted to angling and sailing . To the west are the villages of Burley-in-Wharfedale and Menston . To the east is Pool-in-Wharfedale . To the south is the towns of Guiseley , and Yeadon . Roman roads bypassed Otley, South of the Chevin and North of Timble, so most of roads in the area were little better than tracks until the 18th century when efforts were made to facilitate trade. By 1820 there
15255-460: The western half, they are still a tiny minority─2% in Cheshire , for example. Into the later twentieth century, scholars' usual explanation for the lack of Celtic influence on English, supported by uncritical readings of the accounts of Gildas and Bede, was that Old English became dominant primarily because Germanic-speaking invaders killed, chased away, and/or enslaved the previous inhabitants of
15390-622: Was "tied to the expression of tradition and religious ideas, to the loyalty of a people to authority, and subject to change as history continued to unfold. Therefore, it is a moot point whether all of those whom Bede encompassed under the term Angli were racially Germanic". A traditional semi-mythical account of the origins of English kingdoms was supplied by Bede and the still later Historia Brittonum . These accounts add many details to Gildas based upon unknown sources. These are however considered doubtful by modern scholars. Several other types of evidence are considered relevant. The Tribal Hideage
15525-636: Was (as of 2017) the Stew and Oyster pub, this closed in January 2020. The Old Cock on Crossgate (despite its name) has only recently become a pub, but inhabits former cottages from 1757. These are all Grade II listed buildings. The Black Bull in the Market Place, was allegedly drunk dry by Cromwell's troops on the night before the battle of Marston Moor during the English Civil War and has
15660-481: Was a frequent visitor to the town in the 18th century. Allegedly his horse died in the town and is buried in the grounds of the parish church. Its grave is marked by an unusual stone, also known locally as the "Donkey Stone". His Journal for 1761 reads, "6 July Monday; In the evening I preached at Otley and afterwards talked with many of the Society. There is reason to believe that ten or twelve of these are filled with
15795-466: Was a market-town and the centre of a large ecclesiastical parish in the wapentakes of Skyrack and Claro in the West Riding of Yorkshire . The various chapelries and townships in the ancient parish became separate civil parishes in 1866. The local authority was the lord of the manor until 1864 when Otley Board was formed and many public buildings date from then on. From 1894 Otley formed an Urban District , and in 1897 and 1903 expanded north of
15930-699: Was a regular post coach to Leeds on 4 days a week and 9 carriers delivering as far as Manchester . In 1840 and 1841 new roads to Leeds and Bradford were opened. From 1900 the first motor vehicles appeared in Otley, and in 1912 a motor haulage business started with a vehicle with interchangeable bodies so that it could work as either as lorry or charabanc . By 1930 there were bus companies operating and in 1939 Otley bus station opened. Trolleybuses operated by Leeds Corporation Tramways arrived in 1915, but ceased in 1928. The Otley and Ilkley Joint Railway opened Otley railway station in 1865 and closed in March 1965;
16065-473: Was also expanded during this time, but was greatly reduced in the Second World War. House building revived in the 1960s to 1980s, but industry declined, with many factories closing, including the printing machine works in 1981. Wharfemeadows park provided leisure space for residents and the River Wharfe a place to swim with public open air swimming baths opening on the site in 1924. By the 1960s
16200-451: Was an overall continuity and interconnectedness. Before 400, the Roman sources used the term Saxons to refer to coastal raiders who had been causing problems on the coasts of the North Sea . In what is now south-eastern England the Romans established a military commander who was assigned to oversee a chain of coastal forts which they called the Saxon shore . The homeland of these Saxon raiders
16335-478: Was based in the Civic Centre when it was displaced by major redevelopment of the building. In January 2010, its collections, reflecting the town's story from prehistory to the present day, were packed for storage while new premises were sought. A proposal by the Town Council to develop a National Printing Museum based on the printers' engineers collection was criticised by trustees on the basis that printing
16470-408: Was being ruled by corrupt Romano-British tyrannies, that could no longer be relied upon for law and order. He explicitly noted that there was peace, and that there was only internal fighting instead of fighting with foreigners. There are very few historical records from Britain in the 5th or 6th centuries which can help historians to understand the settlements of the Anglo-Saxons. The Chronica Gallica
16605-425: Was built in the early 7th century, made of wood, but was burnt down. The Parish Church (All Saints) originates from Saxon times and contains the remains of two early Anglo-Saxon crosses, one of which has been reproduced for the town's war memorial. The present building is based on a Norman church from the 12th century but little of the original remains, except the north doorway. Substantial changes were made in
16740-558: Was considerable regional variation. Settlement density varied within southern and eastern England. Norfolk has more large Anglo-Saxon cemeteries than the neighbouring East Anglian county of Suffolk ; eastern Yorkshire (the nucleus of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Deira ) far more than the rest of Northumbria. The settlers were not all of the same type. Some were indeed warriors who were buried equipped with their weapons, but we should not assume that all of these were invited guests who were to guard Romano-British communities. Possibly some, like
16875-473: Was developed in Otley by William Dawson and David Payne. An early example can be seen in Otley Museum . By 1900 the printing machinery trade, with over 2,000 people employed in seven machine shops, was Otley's most important industry. During the First World War, Farnley Camp at Otley housed the Northern Command Gas and Grenade School, which taught military personnel about explosives. After
17010-566: Was in his 3rd consulship, which was in 446. Another 6th century Roman source contemporary with Gildas is Procopius who however lived and wrote in the Eastern Roman Empire , and expressed doubts about the stories he had heard about events in the west. He states that an island called Brittia , which was supposedly not Britain, was settled by three nations: the Angili, Frissones, and Brittones, each ruled by its own king. Each nation
17145-463: Was just one aspect of the town's history and that demand for such a museum had not been demonstrated. In 2024, while still without a permanent physical home, the museum publicised its new website which will serve as a showcase for photographs of some of the approximately 1900 artefacts that have been curated by volunteers. Visitors can view items from the collection by prior arrangement at its temporary location at Otley Cycle Club . Historically Otley
17280-570: Was not clearly described in surviving sources, but they were apparently the northerly neighbours of the Franks on the Lower Rhine . At the same time, the Roman administration in Britain (and other parts of the empire) was recruiting foederati soldiers from these same general regions in what is now Germany, and these are likely to have become more important after the withdrawal of field armies during internal Roman power struggles. According to
17415-420: Was probably the common British term for the settlers. Gildas' use of the word patria (fatherland), when used in relation to the Saxons and Picts, implies that some Saxons could by then be regarded as native to Britannia. Various sources, including Gildas, were used by Bede in his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum , written around 731. Bede's view of Britons is partly responsible for the picture of them as
17550-414: Was probably written in south-eastern Gaul and only contains snippets of information. In this chronicle, the entry about raids upon Britain in 409 is introduced with a general comment about weakening Roman power, and the growing number of enemies. It is grouped with events in Gaul and Spain which suffered invasions during the same period. Gildas lived only a few generations later in the 6th century after
17685-550: Was pulled down and rebuilt in the Elizabethan style with two storeys in 1840. It closed in 1878 and was used as a court-house, and in recent times has been commercial premises, then a public house until closure in 2020. In 1918 the foundation was re-established in temporary premises and in 1925 Prince Henry's Grammar School, Otley , in Farnley Lane opened. Otley has a number of primary schools. Otley's first church
17820-487: Was quite rapidly filled by the intrusive Anglo-Saxon material culture, while the native culture became archaeologically close to invisible—although recent hoards and metal-detector finds show that coin use and imports did not stop abruptly at AD 410. The archaeology of the Roman military systems within Britain is well known but is not well understood: for example, whether the Saxon Shore was defensive or to facilitate
17955-765: Was so prolific that it sent large numbers of individuals every year to the Franks, who planted them in unpopulated regions of their territory. He never mentions the Saxons or Jutes, and the continental relatives of the Angles are named as the Warini , who he believed had a kingdom stretching from the Danube to the Ocean. Michael Jones , a historian at Bates College in New England, says that "Procopius himself, however, betrays doubts about this specific passage, and subsequent details in
18090-501: Was substantial as implied by the statement that Anglia was deserted; and an establishment phase, in which Anglo-Saxons started to control areas, implied in Bede's statement about the origins of the tribes. The manner in which a land of Romano-British kingdoms in the time of Gildas transformed into a land of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in the time of Bede a century or so later is uncertain. Bede's scholarly and patriotic attempt to explain this as
18225-401: Was very symbolic, and distinct differences within groups in the cemetery could be found. Some recent scholarship has argued, however, that current approaches to the sociology of ethnicity render it extremely difficult, if not impossible, to demonstrate ethnic identity via purely archaeological means, and has thereby rejected the basis for using furnished inhumation or such clothing practices as
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