Misplaced Pages

#589410

63-624: Ctesias, who lived in the fifth century BC, was physician to the Achaemenid king, Artaxerxes II , whom he accompanied in 401 BC on his expedition against his brother Cyrus the Younger . Ctesias was part of the entourage of King Artaxerxes at the Battle of Cunaxa (401 BC) against Cyrus the Younger and his Greek mercenaries called the Ten Thousand , when Ctesias provided medical assistance to

126-430: A political alliance that Darius had sought during his early reign, due to facing opposition against his rule. Amestris was also married to Hydarnes' son Terituchmes , while Hydarnes was appointed the satrap of Hyrcania . When Darius II was on his deathbed, Arsaces was by his side. According to Xenophon, Darius II summoned Cyrus, who arrived with Tissaphernes and 300 Greek hoplites . Plutarch, however, reports that it

189-622: A reference to "Archers" ( Toxotai ) the Greek nickname for the darics from their obverse design, because that much money had been paid to politicians in Athens and Thebes to start a war against Sparta. The Achaemenids, allied with Athens, managed to utterly destroy the Spartan fleet at the Battle of Cnidus (394 BC). After that, the Achaemenid satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia , Pharnabazus II , together with former Athenian admiral Conon , raided

252-520: Is an "eloquent but hardly reliable source of information" and that it "should be treated with the greatest caution". Arses was the eldest son of Darius II , who ruled the Persian Achaemenid Empire from 424 to 405/4 BC. His mother was Parysatis , a half-sister of Darius II. His age at death is variously given as 86 ( Lucian ) and 94 ( Dinon ) years, which would place his birth around 453 or 445 BC. Briant simply notes that Arses

315-514: Is derived mainly from Ctesias. As to the worth of Persica , much controversy occurred, both in ancient and modern times. Although many ancient authorities valued the work highly and used it to discredit Herodotus , a modern author writes, "(Ctesias's) unreliability makes Herodotus seem a model of accuracy." Reportedly, Ctesias's account of the Assyrian kings does not reconcile with the cuneiform evidence. The satirist Lucian thought so little of

378-459: Is known about the children of Darius II and Parysatis. Cyrus was most likely born in 424/423 BC, just after the accession of Darius II. In 408 BC, at the age of 15 or 16, Cyrus was appointed the satrap of Lydia , Greater Phrygia , and Cappadocia . He also succeeded Tissaphernes as the commander-in-chief of the Persian force stationed at Castolus , east of the city of Sardis . Cyrus was given

441-816: Is mentioned in the Elephantine papyri dated to 407 BC, i.e., during Darius II 's reign, and is also mentioned in Ezra 6:10 after the reign of Darius ( Ezra 6:1 ) and during the rule of Artaxerxes ( Ezra 7:1 ), thereby supporting the chronological sequence. Amongst others , it has been suggested that Artaxerxes II was the Ahasuerus mentioned in the Book of Esther . Plutarch in his Lives (AD 75) records alternative names Oarses and Arsicas for Artaxerxes II Mnemon given by Deinon (c. 360–340 BC ) and Ctesias (Artexerxes II's physician ) respectively. These derive from

504-637: The Anabasis , focusing on the struggle of the now-stranded Greek mercenaries to return home. Artaxerxes became involved in a war with Persia's erstwhile allies, the Spartans, during the Corinthian War (395-387 BC). The Spartans under their king Agesilaus II had started by invading Asia Minor in 396–395 BC. To redirect the Spartans' attention to Greek affairs, Artaxerxes subsidized their enemies through his envoy Timocrates of Rhodes ; in particular,

567-607: The Athenians , Thebans , and Corinthians received massives subsidies. Tens of thousands of darics , the main currency in Achaemenid coinage , were used to bribe the Greek states to start a war against Sparta. These subsidies helped to engage the Spartans in what would become known as the Corinthian War. According to Plutarch , Agesilaus said upon leaving Asia Minor, "I have been driven out by 10,000 Persian archers",

630-534: The Great Satraps' Revolt , starting with the powerful satrap Datames . Following the failure of Pharnabazus II in Egypt, Datames had been entrusted by the Persian king with the chief command of a force designed for the recovery of Egypt , but the machinations of his enemies at the Persian court, and the risks to which he was in consequence exposed, induced him to change his plan, and throw off his allegiance to

693-615: The Parthian Empire notably considered Artaxerxes II their progenitor . The given name of Artaxerxes II was, as rendered in Greek , Arses ( Ἄρσης ; Babylonian : Aršu ), derived from the Old Persian *Ṛšā- ("man", "hero"). He was also widely known by the hypocorism Aršak , which is attested in several Greek forms including Arsikas ( Plutarch ), Arsakas and Arsaces ( Persica ). From Arsaces also derives

SECTION 10

#1732794182590

756-592: The Spartan general Clearchus , and met Artaxerxes at Cunaxa. He also had a large force of levied troops under his second-in-command Ariaeus . The strength of the Achaemenid army was 40,000 men. When Cyrus learned that his elder brother, the Great King, was approaching with his army, he drew up his army in battle array. He placed the Greek mercenaries on the right, near the river. In addition to this they were supported on their right by some cavalry, 1,000 strong, as

819-738: The Greek cities of Ionia and Aeolis on the Anatolian coast to the Persians, while giving Sparta dominance on the Greek mainland. In 385 BC, he campaigned against the Cadusians . Although successful against the Greeks, Artaxerxes had more trouble with the Egyptians , who had successfully revolted against him at the beginning of his reign. An attempt to reconquer Egypt in 373 BC under the command of Pharnabazus , satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia ,

882-585: The Greek city-states at the time of the Theban hegemony , especially the Theban–Spartan War . He sent Philiscus of Abydos , a hyparch (vice-regent) and military commander of the Achaemenid satrap Ariobarzanes , to Delphi in order to help the Greek negotiate peace. The objective of Philicus of Abydos was such to help broker a Common Peace between the Greek belligerents reunited at Delphi . The negotiation collapsed when Thebes refused to return Messenia to

945-656: The Greek general Chabrias , who was in the service of the Egyptians, but in vain. The Egyptian ruler Nectanebo I was thus supported by Athenian General Chabrias and his mercenaries. The Achaemenid force landed in Egypt with the Athenian general Iphicrates near Mendes in 373 BC. The expedition force was too slow, giving time to the Egyptians to strengthen defenses. Pharnabazus and Iphicrates appeared before Pelusium , but retired without attacking it, Nectanebo I , king of Egypt, having added to its former defences by laying

1008-790: The King, to help them recover the Chersonese militarily. Both Philiscus and Ariobarzanes were made citizens of Athens, a remarkable honor suggesting important services rendered to the city-state. During autumn of 367 BCE, first the Spartans, soon followed by the Athenians, the Arcadians, the Argives, the Eleans, the Thebans, and other Greek city-states, sent envoys to Susa in attempts to obtain

1071-649: The Persian Royal Archives, written in opposition to Herodotus , in the Ionic dialect . The first six books of Persica covered the history of Assyria and Babylon to the foundation of the Persian empire in 550 BC by Cyrus the Great; the remaining 17 books covered the years to 398 BC. Of the two histories, abridgments by Photius and fragments are preserved by Athenaeus , Plutarch , Nicolaus of Damascus , and especially Diodorus Siculus , whose second book

1134-616: The Persian name Khshayarsha as do "Ahasuerus" ("(Arta)Xerxes") and the hypocoristicon "Arshu" for Artaxerxes II found on a contemporary inscription ( LBAT 162 ). These sources thus arguably identify Ahasuerus as Artaxerxes II in light of the names used in the Hebrew and Greek sources and accords with the contextual information from Pseudo-Hecataeus and Berossus as well as agreeing with Al-Tabari and Masudi's placement of events. The 13th century Syriac historian Bar-Hebraeus in his Chronography , also identifies Ahasuerus as Artaxerxes II citing

1197-404: The Persian throne for Cyrus. Clearchus refused this owing to the insecurity that the Greeks had for their right flank, which tended to drift and was undefended, as the shields were held in the left hand. That Clearchus did not obey this order is a sign of the lack of control that Cyrus had over his army, as a couple of other occasions throughout this campaign prior to the battle reveal also. Before

1260-471: The Persians to succeed. They offered their services to Tissaphernes , a leading satrap of Artaxerxes, but he refused them, and they refused to surrender to him. Tissaphernes was left with a problem; a large army of heavy troops, which he could not defeat by frontal assault. He supplied them with food and, after a long wait, led them northwards for home, meanwhile detaching Ariaeus and his light troops from their cause. The Greek senior officers foolishly accepted

1323-438: The Spartans. Before returning to Abydos, Philicus used Achaemenid funds to finance an army for the Spartans, suggesting that he was acting in support of the Spartans from the beginning. With the Achaemenid financing of a new army, Sparta was able to continue the war. Among the mercenaries whom he had recruited, Philiscus gave 2,000 to the Spartans. He also probably provided funds to the Athenians and promised them, on behalf of

SECTION 20

#1732794182590

1386-470: The Younger for control of the Achaemenid throne. The great battle of the revolt of Cyrus took place 70 km north of Babylon , at Cunaxa ( Greek : Κούναξα ), on the left bank of the Euphrates . The main source is Xenophon , a Greek soldier who participated in the fighting. Cyrus gathered an army of Greek mercenaries , consisting of 10,400 hoplites and 2,500 light infantry and peltasts , under

1449-454: The Younger declared his claim to the throne, based on the argument that he was born to Darius and Parysatis after Darius had ascended to the throne, while Artaxerxes was born prior to Darius II's gaining the throne. Artaxerxes II initially wanted to resolve the conflict peacefully, but the negotiations fell through. Cyrus also ran into issues with the locals, who were loyal to Artaxerxes. Artaxerxes defended his position against his brother Cyrus

1512-478: The Younger's claims to be on a military expedition to attack the Pisidians had many flaws that led him to believe that Cyrus was planning to revolt. These claims became realized when Cyrus began to seek political support for his campaign. Cyrus found support from Sparta , who sent soldiers to aid the campaign against Artaxerxes II. Notably, Cyrus found support from a Persian kingdom of Cilicia , who contributed to

1575-488: The Younger, who with the aid of a large army of Greek mercenaries called the " Ten Thousand ", attempted to usurp the throne. Though Cyrus' mixed army fought to a tactical victory at the Battle of Cunaxa in Babylon (401 BC), Cyrus himself was killed in the exchange by Mithridates, rendering his victory irrelevant. The Greek historian Xenophon , himself one of the leaders of the Greek troops, would later recount this battle in

1638-504: The beliefs of the Persians about India. The book only remains in fragments and in reports made about the book by later authors. Artaxerxes II of Persia Arses ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Ἄρσης ; c. 445 – 359/8 BC), known by his regnal name Artaxerxes II ( Old Persian : 𐎠𐎼𐎫𐎧𐏁𐏂 Artaxšaçāʰ ; ‹See Tfd› Greek : Ἀρταξέρξης ), was King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire from 405/4 BC to 358 BC. He

1701-416: The center so as to go after Artaxerxes. However, Clearchus, not desiring to do this—for fear of his right flank—refused, and promised Cyrus, according to Xenophon, that he would "take care that all would be well". Cyrus wanted to place him in the center as the Greeks were his most capable unit, and were thereby most able to defeat the elite Persian cavalry and in the process kill the Great King, thereby gaining

1764-529: The coasts of Peloponnesia , putting increased pressure on the Spartans. This encouraged the resurgence of Athens, which started to bring back under her control the Greek cities of Asia Minor, thus worrying Artaxerxes II that his Athenian allies were becoming too powerful. In 386 BC, Artaxerxes II betrayed his allies and came to an arrangement with Sparta, and in the Treaty of Antalcidas , he forced his erstwhile allies to come to terms. This treaty restored control of

1827-572: The defeat and death of Cyrus. Following this, Artaxerxes II had to contend with several other revolts; a revolt by Evagoras I ( r.  411–374 BC ) in Cyprus between 391–380 BC, by the Phoenicians in c.  380 BC , and most importantly, the revolts by the western satraps (known as the Great Satraps' Revolt ) in the 360s and 350s BC, led by distinguished figures such as Datames , Ariobarzanes , and Autophradates . The rulers of

1890-540: The effort through funds. During this time, due to Tissaphernes' reports, Artaxerxes II began to build up a force to contend with his younger brother's revolt. By the time of Darius II's death, Cyrus had already been successful in defeating the Syrians and Cilicians and was commanding a large army made up of his initial supporters plus those who had joined him in Phrygia and beyond. Upon hearing of his father's death, Cyrus

1953-407: The epithet "Mnemon" ( Ancient Greek : Μνήμων ; Old Persian : abiataka ), meaning "remembering" or "having a good memory." The life and reign of Artaxerxes II is mostly attested in classical Greek sources, which generally focuses on the history of the western front. However, due to Artaxerxes II's younger brother Cyrus the Younger recruiting many Greeks during his rebellion against his brother,

Ctesias - Misplaced Pages Continue

2016-406: The final attack began, Xenophon, the main relater of the events at Cunaxa, who was probably at the time some kind of mid-level officer, approached Cyrus to ensure that all the proper orders and dispositions had been made. Cyrus told him that they had, and that the sacrifices that traditionally took place before a battle promised success. The Greeks, deployed on Cyrus's right and outnumbered, charged

2079-422: The grave of Darius I at Persepolis was in a cliff face that could be reached with an apparatus of ropes. A record of the view that the Persians held of India was written by Ctesias under the title Indica . It includes descriptions of artisans, philosophers, and people having the qualities of deities, as well as accounts of unquantifiable gold, among other riches and wonders. The work is of value as it records

2142-488: The historical reliability of Ctesias that in his satirical True Story he places Ctesias on an island where the evil were punished. Lucian wrote, "The people who suffered the greatest torment were those who had told lies when they were alive and written mendacious histories; among them were Ctesias of Cnidus, Herodotus, and many others." According to the Encyclopædia Britannica , Ctesias mentioned that

2205-492: The invitation of Tissaphernes to a feast. There they were made prisoner, taken up to the king and there decapitated. The Greeks elected new officers and set out to march northwards to the Black Sea through Corduene and Armenia , to reach the Greek colonies on the shore. Their eventual success, the march of the Ten Thousand , was recorded by Xenophon in his Anabasis . Another famous writer of Antiquity, besides Xenophon ,

2268-445: The kill from Artaxerxes). Only the Greek mercenaries, who had not heard of Cyrus's death and were heavily armed, stood firm. Clearchus advanced against the much larger right wing of Artaxerxes' army and sent it into retreat. Meanwhile, Artaxerxes' troops took the Greek encampment and destroyed their food supplies. According to the Greek soldier and writer Xenophon , the Greek heavy troops scattered their opposition twice; only one Greek

2331-453: The king by treating his flesh wound. He reportedly was involved in negotiations with the Greeks after the battle, and also helped their Spartan general Clearchus before his execution at the royal court at Babylon. Ctesias was the author of treatises on rivers and on the Persian revenues, as well as an account of India, Indica ( Ἰνδικά ), and of a history of Assyria and Persia in 23 books, Persica ( Περσικά ), drawn from documents in

2394-409: The king. He withdrew with the troops under his command into Cappadocia , and made common cause with the other satraps who were revolting from Persia. The Pharaoh Nectanebo provided financial support to the rebelling satraps and re-established ties with both Sparta and Athens. Artaxerxes II finally quashed the revolt of the satraps by 362 BC. Artaxerxes again attempted to mediate in conflicts between

2457-444: The left flank of Artaxerxes' army, which broke ranks and fled before they came within arrowshot. However, on the Persian right the fight between Artaxerxes' army and Cyrus was far more difficult and protracted. Cyrus personally charged his brother's bodyguard and was killed by a javelin , which sent the rebels into retreat. (The man who threw the javelin was known as Mithridates and he would later be executed by scaphism because he took

2520-517: The mutual distrust that had arisen between Iphicrates and Pharnabazus prevented the enemy from reaching Memphis . Then, the annual Nile flood and the Egyptian defenders' resolve to defend their territory turned what had initially appeared as certain defeat for Nectanebo I and his troops into a complete victory. After several weeks, the Persians and their Greek mercenaries under Iphicrates had to re-embark. The expedition against Egypt had failed. It

2583-567: The name of the Arsacid dynasty , which ruled the Parthian Empire and claimed descent from Artaxerxes II himself. Artaxerxēs ( Αρταξέρξης ) is the Greek rendition of the Old Persian Artaxšaçā ("whose reign is through truth "). It is known in other languages as; Elamite Ir-tak-ik-ša-iš-ša , Ir-da-ik-ša-iš-ša ; Akkadian Ar-ta-ʾ-ḫa-šá-is-su ; Middle Persian and New Persian Ardašīr . Greek authors gave Artaxerxes II

Ctesias - Misplaced Pages Continue

2646-565: The neighboring lands under water, and blocking up the navigable channels of the Nile by embankments. ( Diodorus Siculus xv. 42; Cornelius Nepos , Iphicrates c. 5.) Fortifications on the Pelusiac branch of the Nile ordered by Nectanebo forced the enemy fleet to seek another way to sail up the Nile . Eventually the fleet managed to find its way up the less-defended Mendesian branch. At this point,

2709-409: The opponents of the Achaemenid king. Athens and Sparta provided support for the revolted satraps, in particular Ariobarzanes . Sparta sent a force to Ariobarzanes under an aging Agesilaus II , while Athens sent a force under Timotheus , which was however diverted when it became obvious that Ariobarzanes had entered frontal conflict with the Achaemenid king. An Athenian mercenary force under Chabrias

2772-439: The reign of Artaxerxes II is well documented until Cyrus' death at the Battle of Cunaxa in 401 BC. Following that, detailed information on the rest of Artaxerxes II's reign become much more sparse. Plutarch, when writing his Life of Artaxerxes II , used Ctesias, Dinon, Xenophon, and a few others as references. The work is the only biography of an Achaemenid king. According to the modern historian Carsten Binder, Plutarch's work

2835-437: The sixth century AD historian John of Ephesus . Artaxerxes II is reported to have had a number of wives. His main wife was Stateira , until she was poisoned by Artaxerxes' mother Parysatis in about 400 BC. Artaxerxes II is said to have more than 115 sons from 350 wives. Battle of Cunaxa The Battle of Cunaxa was fought in the late summer of 401 BC between the Persian king Artaxerxes II and his brother Cyrus

2898-452: The support of Achaemenid king Artaxerxes II in the Greek conflict. The Achaemenid king proposed a new peace treaty, this time highly tilted in favour of Thebes, which required Messenia to remain independent and that the Athenian fleet to be dismantled. This Peace proposal was rejected by most Greek parties except Thebes. Sparta and Athens, dissatisfied with the Persian king's support of Thebes , decided to provide careful military support to

2961-466: The title of karanos ( Old Iranian : *Karana ), which greatly expanded his authority both politically and militarily, and allowed him to become largely autonomous. Before his accession, Arsaces married Stateira , the daughter of the Persian nobleman Hydarnes , who was descended from Hydarnes , one of the seven Persian conspirators who overthrew the Pseudo-Smerdis . The marriage was part of

3024-559: The worship of Anahita, erecting temples and statues of the goddess across the empire. This included the cities of Ecbatana , Susa, and Babylon . The temple of Anahita in Istakhr was also most likely founded by Artaxerxes II. At the start of the 3rd century AD, the temple was repaired and adorned by the Persian Sasanian family , who acted as the hereditary caretakers of the temple. The Persian Empire under Artaxerxes II

3087-487: Was Parysatis who summoned Cyrus, as she favoured him over Arsaces. He further adds that she attempted to convince Darius II to choose Cyrus as his heir, as the position was still vacant. Modern historians question Plutarch's account, and state that Arsaces must have already been chosen as heir previously, probably several years earlier. During the coronation of Arsaces at the southern capital of Pasargadae , Cyrus allegedly attempted to have his brother assassinated. The plan

3150-545: Was also sent to the Egyptian Pharaoh Tachos , who was also fighting against the Achaemenid king. Much of Artaxerxes' wealth was spent on building projects. He restored the Palace of Darius I at Susa , and also the fortifications; including a strong redoubt at the south-east corner of the enclosure and gave Ecbatana a new apadana and sculptures. The tomb of Artaxerxes II is located at Persepolis , and

3213-402: Was born before his father's accession in 424, while another author states that he was "at least in his late seventies in the early 360s". Darius II and Parysatis had thirteen children, most of whom died prematurely. Thus the only known full siblings of Arsaces were his younger brothers Cyrus, Ostanes , Oxathres, and an older sister, Amestris. With the exception of Arsaces and Cyrus, not much

SECTION 50

#1732794182590

3276-598: Was built on the model of his predecessors at Naqsh-e Rustam . On the upper register of the tomb appear reliefs of the Emperor, supported by the soldiers of all ethnicities of the Empire. On the lintel over each figure appears a trilingual inscription describing each ethnicity. These are known collectively as "Inscription A2Pa" . Since the reign of Darius the Great ( r.  522–486 BC ), Achaemenid inscriptions make mention of unnamed gods alongside Ahura Mazda , who

3339-624: Was completely unsuccessful, but in his waning years, the Persians did manage to defeat a joint Egyptian–Spartan effort to conquer Phoenicia . In 377 BC, Pharnabazus was reassigned by Artaxerxes II to help command a military expedition into rebellious Egypt, having proven his ability against the Spartans. After four years of preparations in the Levant, Pharnabazus gathered an expeditionary force of 200,000 Persian troops, 300 triremes, 200 galleys, and 12,000 Greeks under Iphicrates . The Achaemenid Empire had also been applying pressure on Athens to recall

3402-573: Was considered the supreme god of the Zoroastrian pantheon by the royal family. It was first under Artaxerxes II that the identities of these gods were uncovered. In a trilingual inscription at Susa , he invokes the deities Anahita and Mithra alongside Ahura Mazda. Artaxerxes II was thus the first known Achaemenid king to recognize Anahita, who was the divinity of "the Waters" and hence associated with fertility, healing and wisdom. He promoted

3465-408: Was even wounded. Only after the battle did they hear that Cyrus himself had been killed, making their victory irrelevant and the expedition a failure. They were in the middle of a very large empire with no food, no employer, and no reliable friends. They offered to make their Persian ally Ariaeus king, but he refused on the grounds that he was not of royal blood and so would not find enough support among

3528-400: Was exposed by Tissaphernes, but Cyrus was spared following the intervention of Parysatis and sent back to Asia Minor. The authenticity of this event is deemed uncertain by modern historians. According to Binder, the transition of power between Darius II and Arsaces was seemingly peaceful. During his investiture , Arsaces adopted the throne name of Artaxerxes. Tissaphernes noted that Cyrus

3591-429: Was in the center of his line, with 6,000 units of Persian cavalry (which were some of the finest in the world) which was to the left of Cyrus, his line being so much the longer. Artaxerxes line overlapped Cyrus' line quite significantly, since he was able to field many more troops. Cyrus then approached Clearchus, the leader of the Greeks, who was commanding the phalanx stationed on the right, and ordered him to move into

3654-477: Was present at the Battle of Cunaxa. Ctesias , a native of Caria , which belonged to the Achaemenid Empire at the time, was part of the entourage of King Artaxerxes at the Battle of Cunaxa, and brought medical assistance to the king by treating his flesh wound. He reportedly was involved in negotiations with the Greeks after the battle, and also helped their Spartan general Clearchus before his execution. Ctesias

3717-877: Was that of the Palace of Darius in Susa . He would also be remembered for his tomb in Persepolis. The image of Artaxerxes from contemporary foreign sources depicts him in a similar light to his image among those in the Achaemenid Empire. The Greek portrayal highlights his long rule with many conflicts and shortcomings of Artaxerxes II in his ability to control his empire. Greek sources also focus on his problems in his court with his harem and eunuchs , as in Claudius Aelianus 's accounts of Aspasia of Phocaea and Tiridates . Greek sources portray Artaxerxes II as sad in his reign. The Jewish high priest Johanan

3780-410: Was the end of the career of Pharnabazus, who was now over 70 years old. Pharnabazus was replaced by Datames to lead a second expedition to Egypt, but he failed and then started the "Satraps' Revolt" against the Great King. The Achaemenid defeat in Egypt led to unrest among the Achaemenid nobility. From 372 BC, many western satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire started to rebel against Artaxerxes II, in

3843-432: Was the son and successor of Darius II ( r.  423 – 405/4 BC ) and his mother was Parysatis . Soon after his accession, Artaxerxes II faced opposition from his younger brother Cyrus the Younger , who assembled an army composed of troops from his Lydian and Ionian satrapies as well as Greek mercenaries in his bid for the throne. The forces of the brothers clashed at Cunaxa in 401 BC, which resulted in

SECTION 60

#1732794182590

3906-428: Was the tradition of battle order in that day. To the Greeks, this was the place of honor. Cyrus himself with 600 body guards was in the center, to the left of the Greek mercenaries—the place where Persian monarchs traditionally placed themselves in the order of battle. Cyrus' Asiatic troops were on the left flank. Inversely, Artaxerxes II placed his left on the river, with a unit of cavalry supporting it also. Artaxerxes

3969-530: Was viewed as a political power that had many unfortunate complications, such as the many wars with Greece. One aspect of his legacy which would have great influence upon his successors was his conflict with Cyrus the Younger. This conflict was remembered due to the power vacuum that followed, allowing the Satrap Revolt and the rebellion of Egypt . Artaxerxes II was also remembered for his works to restore monuments of his predecessors. His largest restoration

#589410