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85-630: The Mitsubishi A6M " Zero " is a long-range carrier-capable fighter aircraft formerly manufactured by Mitsubishi Aircraft Company , a part of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries . It was operated by the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) from 1940 to 1945. The A6M was designated as the Mitsubishi Navy Type 0 carrier fighter ( 零式艦上戦闘機 , rei-shiki-kanjō-sentōki ) , or the Mitsubishi A6M Rei-sen. The A6M

170-546: A raid of Chongqing , attacked 34 Soviet-built Polikarpov I-15s and I-16s of the Chinese Nationalist Air Force , claimed "all 27" of the Chinese fighters shot down without loss to themselves. However Major Louie Yim-qun had in fact nursed his I-15 riddled with 48 bullet holes back to base, and Lieutenant Gao Youxin claimed to have shot down one Zero, but at most 4 Zeroes sustained some damage in

255-671: A ball of fire by now. When the Lockheed P-38 Lightning , armed with four "light barrel" AN/M2 .50 cal. Browning machine guns and one 20 mm autocannon , and the Grumman F6F Hellcat and Vought F4U Corsair , each with six AN/M2 .50 calibre Browning guns, appeared in the Pacific theater, the A6M, with its low-powered engine and lighter armament, was hard-pressed to remain competitive. In combat with an F6F or F4U,

340-521: A dive. Testing also revealed that the Zero could not roll as quickly to the right as it could to the left, which could be exploited. While stable on the ground despite its light weight, the aircraft was designed purely for the attack role, emphasizing long range, maneuverability, and firepower at the expense of protection of its pilot. Most lacked self-sealing tanks and armor plating. Captain Eric Brown ,

425-430: A good rate of roll. Another important maneuver was Lieutenant Commander John S. "Jimmy" Thach 's " Thach Weave ", in which two fighters would fly about 60 m (200 ft) apart. If a Zero latched onto the tail of one of the fighters, the two aircraft would turn toward each other. If the Zero followed his original target through the turn, he would come into a position to be fired on by the target's wingman. This tactic

510-478: A high number could be loaded onto carriers, making them an important resource during the Vietnam war. There are three main types of modern carrier-based aircraft, which are categorised by the U.S. Navy as follows: CATOBAR is a system used for the launch and recovery of aircraft from the deck of an aircraft carrier . Under this technique, aircraft are launched using a catapult-assisted take-off and landing on

595-617: A land-based fighter. In early combat operations, the Zero gained a reputation as a dogfighter , achieving an outstanding kill ratio of 12 to 1, but by mid-1942 a combination of new tactics and the introduction of better equipment enabled Allied pilots to engage the Zero on generally equal terms. By 1943, the Zero was less effective against newer Allied fighters. The Zero lacked hydraulic boosting for its ailerons and rudder, rendering it difficult to maneuver at high speeds. Lack of self-sealing fuel tanks also made it more vulnerable than its contemporaries. By 1944, with Allied fighters approaching

680-433: A maximum speed of 565 km/h (351 mph) at 6,000 m (20,000 ft), reaching that altitude in 7:01 minutes. Subsequent variants included: Some Model 21 and 52 aircraft were converted to "bakusen" ( fighter-bombers ) by mounting a bomb rack and 250 kg (550 lb) bomb in place of the centerline drop tank. Up to seven Model 52 planes were ostensibly converted into A6M5-K two-seat trainers. Mass production

765-505: A prototype plane exists. It shows a turbo unit mounted in the forward left fuselage. Lack of suitable alloys for use in the manufacture of a turbo-supercharger and its related ducting caused numerous ruptures, resulting in fires and poor performance. Consequently, further development of a turbo-supercharged A6M was cancelled. The lack of acceptance by the Navy suggests that it did not bestow model number 41 or 42 formally, although it appears that

850-451: A small loop of high wing over which placed them out of reach and in position for another attack. By reversing the turn sharply after each attack the leader may get a shot at the enemy while he is climbing away or head on into a scissor if the Jap turns to meet it. In contrast, Allied fighters were designed with ruggedness and pilot protection in mind. The Japanese ace Saburō Sakai described how

935-568: A two-blade propeller. It first flew on 1 April, and passed testing within a remarkably short period. By September, it had already been accepted for Navy testing as the A6M1 Type 0 Carrier Fighter, with the only notable change being a switch to a three-bladed propeller to cure a vibration problem. While the Navy was testing the first two prototypes, they suggested that the third be fitted with the 700 kW (940 hp) Nakajima Sakae 12 engine instead. Mitsubishi had its own engine of this class in

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1020-656: A wider variety of ships , including helicopter carriers , destroyers , frigates and container ships. The 1903 advent of fixed-wing aircraft was followed in 1910 by the first flight of an aircraft from the deck of an anchored warship (the United States Navy 's USS  Birmingham ), and in 1912, by the first flight of an aircraft from the deck of a warship underway (the Royal Navy 's HMS  Hibernia ). Seaplanes and seaplane tender support ships, such as HMS  Engadine , followed. This evolution

1105-407: A zinc plated metal in a solution of sodium dichromate and sulfuric acid for a few seconds. Zinc chromate can also be synthesized by using neutral potassium chromate (K 2 CrO 4 ) and zinc sulfate (ZnSO 4 ), which forms a precipitate. K 2 CrO 4 + ZnSO 4 → ZnCrO 4 + K 2 SO 4 Zinc chromate's main use is in industrial painting as a coating over iron or aluminium materials. It

1190-491: Is not common practice. Even very large aircraft such as the Lockheed C-130 Hercules have been successfully landed and launched from large aircraft carriers, but was done with no cargo and little fuel on board the aircraft. [REDACTED] Media related to Carrier-based aircraft at Wikimedia Commons Zinc chromate Zinc chromate , Zn Cr O 4 , is a chemical compound , a salt containing

1275-581: Is that the F4F-4 is even more sluggish and slow than the F4F-3. It is also felt that it was a mistake to put 6 guns on the F4F-4 and thus to reduce the rounds per gun. Many of our fighters ran out of ammunition even before the Jap dive bombers arrived over our forces; these were experienced pilots, not novices. They were astounded by the Zero's superiority: In the Coral Sea, they made all their approaches from

1360-419: Is usually operated as a STOVL aircraft to increase its fuel and weapons load. STOBAR is a system used for the launch and recovery of aircraft from the deck of an aircraft carrier , combining elements of both STOVL and CATOBAR. Aircraft launch under their own power using a ski-jump to assist take-off (rather than using a catapult). These are conventional aircraft however and require arresting wires to land on

1445-650: The China Burma India Theater by the " Flying Tigers " of the American Volunteer Group (AVG) against similarly maneuverable Japanese Army aircraft such as the Nakajima Ki-27 "Nate" and Nakajima Ki-43 "Oscar" . AVG pilots were trained by their commander Claire Chennault to exploit the advantages of their P-40 Warhawks , which were very sturdy, heavily armed, generally faster in a dive, and level flight at low altitude, with

1530-738: The Polikarpov I-16s and I-153s that had been such a problem for the A5Ms when in service. In one encounter, 13 Zeros shot down 27 I-15s and I-16s in under three minutes without loss. After hearing of these reports, the Navy immediately ordered the A6M2 into production as the Type 0 Carrier Fighter, Model 11. Reports of the Zero's performance slowly filtered back to the US. They were met with scepticism by most US military officials, who thought it impossible for

1615-810: The Vought F4U Corsair , and further variants of the Zero . Often carrier aircraft would have folding wings or wingtips to maximise space conservation on the decks of carriers. Carrier aircraft were used extensively during the Korean and Vietnam wars. Douglas A-4 Skyhawks participated in the first strikes of the Vietnam War in response to attacks against American destroyers in the Tonkin Gulf in August 1964. The A-4's small size and light weight meant

1700-523: The chromate anion , appearing as odorless yellow powder or yellow-green crystals, but, when used for coatings, pigments are often added. It is used industrially in chromate conversion coatings , having been developed by the Ford Motor Company in the 1920s. A process known as the Cronak process is used to create zinc chromate for use in industry. This process is done by putting zinc or

1785-649: The 1/2 hour-long dogfight over Chongqing. By the time they were redeployed a year later, the Zeros had shot down 99 Chinese aircraft (up to 266 according to other sources). At the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor , 521 Zeros were active in the Pacific, 328 in first-line units. The carrier-borne Model 21 was the type encountered by the Americans. Its tremendous range of over 2,600 kilometres (1,600 mi) allowed it to range farther from its carrier than expected, appearing over distant battlefronts and giving Allied commanders

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1870-488: The A6M during the Second Sino-Japanese War . Inevitably some aircraft were lost, with at least two falling more-or-less intact into Chinese hands. The first known example, an A6M2 (the 12th of the 15 pre-production aircraft, Serial V-110), fell near Fainan Island. On 18 September 1940 a team, including Western volunteers assisting the Chinese, examined the wreck. It was largely intact, and a detailed report

1955-515: The A6M's levels of maneuverability and consistently exceeding its firepower, armor, and speed, the A6M had largely become outdated as a fighter aircraft. However, as design delays and production difficulties hampered the introduction of newer Japanese aircraft models, the Zero continued to serve in a front-line role until the end of the war in the Pacific . During the final phases, it was also adapted for use in kamikaze operations. Japan produced more Zeros than any other model of combat aircraft during

2040-613: The Allied Technical Air Intelligence Unit at Eagle Farm Airport in Australia), who wanted quick, distinctive, easy-to-remember names. The Allied code for Japanese aircraft was introduced in 1942, and McCoy chose "Zeke" for the "Zero". Later, two variants of the fighter received their own code names. The Nakajima A6M2-N floatplane version of the Zero was called "Rufe", and the A6M3-32 variant

2125-587: The American method that built them separately and joined the two parts together. The Japanese method was much slower but resulted in a very strong structure and improved close maneuverability. American test pilots found that the Zero's controls were "very light" at 320 km/h (200 mph) but stiffened at speeds above 348 km/h (216 mph) to safeguard against wing failure. The Zero could not keep up with Allied aircraft in high-speed maneuvers, and its low " never exceed speed " (V NE ) made it vulnerable in

2210-595: The Battle of Midway Allied pilots expressed a high level of dissatisfaction with the F4F Wildcat . Captain Elliott Buckmaster , commanding officer of USS  Yorktown notes: The fighter pilots are very disappointed with the performance and length of sustained fire power of the F4F-4 airplanes. The Zero fighters could easily outmaneuver and out-climb the F4F-3, and the consensus of fighter pilot opinion

2295-523: The Grumman, the airplane did not fall, but kept on flying! I thought this very odd—it had never happened before—and closed the distance between the two airplanes until I could almost reach out and touch the Grumman. To my surprise, the Grumman's rudder and tail were torn to shreds, looking like an old torn piece of rag. With his plane in such condition, no wonder the pilot was unable to continue fighting! A Zero which had taken that many bullets would have been

2380-514: The Imperial Navy, and "M" indicated Mitsubishi as the manufacturer. The official Allied code name was "Zeke", in keeping with the practice of giving male names to Japanese fighters, female names to bombers , bird names to gliders , and tree names to trainers . "Zeke" was part of the first batch of "hillbilly" code names assigned by Captain Frank T. McCoy of Nashville, Tennessee (assigned to

2465-493: The Japanese to build such an aircraft. After the delivery of the 65th aircraft, a further change was worked into the production lines, which introduced folding wingtips to allow them to fit on aircraft carriers. The resulting Model 21 would become one of the most produced versions early in the war. A feature was the improved range with 520 L (140 US gal) wing tank and 320 L (85 US gal) drop tank. When

2550-618: The Model 32 was unsuited to that campaign and was used mainly for shorter range offensive missions and interception. This variant was flown by only a small number of units, and only 343 were built. One example survives today, and is on display at the Tachiarai Peace Memorial Museum in Tachiarai, Fukuoka . In order to correct the deficiencies of the Model 32, a new version with folding wingtips and redesigned wing

2635-464: The Model 52. Mitsubishi is unable to state with certainty that it ever used the designation "A6M4" or model numbers for it. However, "A6M4" does appear in a translation of a captured Japanese memo from a Naval Air Technical Arsenal, titled Quarterly Report on Research Experiments, dated 1 October 1942. It mentions a "cross-section of the A6M4 intercooler" then being designed. Some researchers believe "A6M4"

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2720-484: The Pacific where the US's island hopping campaign meant that being able to conduct air operations at sea far from an airbase was crucially important. At the onset Japan used 125 Mitsubishi A6M Zeros launched from 6 aircraft carriers to attack the Naval base at Pearl Harbor , with the result of sinking or damaging 21 warships, and destroying 188 aircraft. The war saw the creation of new carrier capable aircraft such as

2805-453: The Sakae 21 engine, which used a two-speed supercharger for better altitude performance, and increased power to 831 kW (1,130 hp). A prototype Zero with the new engine was first flown on 15 July 1941. The new Sakae was slightly heavier and somewhat longer due to the larger supercharger, which moved the center of gravity too far forward on the existing airframe. To correct for this,

2890-520: The U.S. Navy launches its E-2 Hawkeye AEW aircraft and C-2A Greyhound cargo aircraft with catapults. STOVL take-offs are accomplished with " ski-jumps ", instead of a catapult. STOVL use usually allows aircraft to carry a larger payload as compared to during VTOL use, while avoiding the complexity of a catapult. The best known example is the Hawker Siddeley Harrier Jump Jet, despite being capable of VTOL take-offs,

2975-415: The Zero was one of the most modern carrier-based aircraft in the world at the time of its introduction. It had a fairly high-lift, low-speed wing with very low wing loading . Combined with its light weight, this resulted in a very low stalling speed of well below 60 kn (110 km/h; 69 mph). This was the main reason for its phenomenal maneuverability, allowing it to out-turn any Allied fighter of

3060-531: The acrobatic Japs", as Lieutenant General Claire Lee Chennault noted. Although not as fast as the British fighter, the Zero could out-turn the Spitfire with ease, sustain a climb at a very steep angle, and stay in the air for three times as long. Allied pilots soon developed tactics to cope with the Zero. Because of its extreme agility, engaging a Zero in a traditional turning dogfight was likely to be fatal. It

3145-424: The aluminium from corrosion. This compound was a useful coating because it is an anti-corrosive and anti-rust primer. Since it is highly toxic, it also destroys organic growth on the surface. Zinc chromate is also used in spray paints, artists' paints, pigments in varnishes, and in making linoleum. When used as a pigment, it is known as Zinc Yellow, Buttercup Yellow or Yellow 36. It is rarely used in art because

3230-450: The arsenal did use the designation "A6M4". The prototype engines nevertheless provided useful experience for future engine designs. Sometimes considered as the most effective variant, the Model 52 was developed to again shorten the wings to increase speed and dispense with the folding wing mechanism. In addition, ailerons, aileron trim tab and flaps were revised. Produced first by Mitsubishi, most Model 52s were made by Nakajima. The prototype

3315-553: The carrier at sea near their destination under their own power, and land on a friendly airfield ashore. These were not usually combat missions but in some cases the launched aircraft provided air cover for the ship, and the aircraft could not be recovered by the carrier. Some STOL aircraft, such as the North American Rockwell OV-10 Bronco , have been operated from aircraft carriers and amphibious assault ships in this manner more recently, but this

3400-493: The chief naval test pilot of the Royal Navy , recalled being impressed by the Zero during tests of captured aircraft. "I don't think I have ever flown a fighter that could match the rate of turn of the Zero. The Zero had ruled the roost totally and was the finest fighter in the world until mid-1943." The first two A6M1 prototypes were completed in March 1939, powered by the 580 kW (780 hp) Mitsubishi Zuisei 13 engine with

3485-427: The engine mountings were cut back by 185 mm (7.3 in) to move the engine toward the cockpit. This had the side effect of reducing the size of the main fuselage fuel tank (located between the engine and the cockpit) from 518 L (137 US gal) to 470 L (120 US gal). The cowling was redesigned to enlarge the cowl flaps, revise the oil cooler air intake, and move the carburetor air intake to

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3570-735: The experiences of the A5M in China, the IJN sent out updated requirements in October, calling for a speed of 270 kn (310 mph; 500 km/h) at 4,000 m (13,000 ft) and a climb to 3,000 m (9,800 ft) in 9.5 minutes. With drop tanks , the IJN wanted an endurance of two hours at normal power, or six to eight hours at economical cruising speed. Armament was to consist of two 20 mm cannons , two 7.7 mm (.303 in) machine guns and two 60 kg (130 lb) bombs . A complete radio set

3655-486: The failed solid rocket booster on Space Shuttle Challenger . Blowholes in this putty may have been a minor contributor to its catastrophic loss . Recent studies have shown that not only is zinc chromate highly toxic, it is also a carcinogen because it contains Cr(VI) . Exposure to zinc chromate can cause tissue ulceration and cancer. A study published in the British Journal of Industrial Medicine showed

3740-711: The form of the Kinsei , so they were somewhat reluctant to use the Sakae. Nevertheless, when the first A6M2 was completed in January 1940, the Sakae's extra power pushed the performance of the Zero well past the original specifications. The new version was so promising that the Navy had 15 built and shipped to China before they had completed testing. They arrived in Manchuria in July 1940, and first saw combat over Chongqing in August. There they proved to be completely untouchable by

3825-583: The impression that there were several times as many Zeros as actually existed. The Zero quickly gained a fearsome reputation. Thanks to a combination of unsurpassed maneuverability—compared to contemporary Axis fighters—and excellent firepower, it easily disposed of Allied aircraft sent against it in the Pacific in 1941. It proved a difficult opponent even for the Supermarine Spitfire . "The RAF pilots were trained in methods that were excellent against German and Italian equipment but suicide against

3910-466: The last digit of the Imperial year 2600 (1940) when it entered service. In Japan, it was unofficially referred to as both Rei-sen and Zero-sen ; Japanese pilots most commonly called it Zero-sen, where sen is the first syllable of sentōki, Japanese for "fighter plane". In the official designation "A6M", the "A" signified a carrier-based fighter, "6" meant that it was the sixth such model built for

3995-623: The lines switched to updated models, 740 Model 21s had been completed by Mitsubishi, and another 800 by Nakajima. Two other versions of the Model 21 were built in small numbers, the Nakajima-built A6M2-N "Rufe" floatplane (based on the Model 11 with a slightly modified tail), and the A6M2-K two-seat trainer of which a total of 508 were built by Hitachi and the Sasebo Naval Air Arsenal. In 1941, Nakajima introduced

4080-508: The loss of many warships to aircraft, including the sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse , the Battle of Taranto , the Attack on Pearl Harbor and numerous other incidents. Following the war, carrier operations continued to increase in size and importance. The vital importance of aircraft carriers, and therefore carrier-capable aircraft, quickly became apparent at the onset of the war in

4165-569: The new design type was accepted formally by the Navy, the A6M3 Model 22 already stood ready for service in December 1942. Approximately 560 aircraft of the new type had been produced in the meantime by Mitsubishi Jukogyo K.K. According to a theory, the very late production Model 22 might have had wings similar to the shortened, rounded-tip wing of the Model 52. One plane of such arrangement was photographed at Lakunai Airfield ("Rabaul East") in

4250-403: The new style of exhaust commenced with number 3904. Whether this is correct, indicates retrofitting intentions, refers to the prototype but not to all subsequent planes, or is in error, is unclear.) From production number 4274, the wing fuel tanks received carbon dioxide fire extinguishers . From number 4354, the radio became the Model 3, aerial Mark 1, and at that point it is said the antenna mast

4335-494: The only positive thing that could be said of the Zero at this stage of the war was that, in the hands of a skillful pilot, it could maneuver as well as most of its opponents. Nonetheless, in competent hands, the Zero could still be deadly. Because of shortages of high-powered aviation engines and problems with planned successor models, namely the superior Mitsubishi A7M2 Reppū , the Zero remained in production until 1945, with over 10,000 of all variants produced. The Japanese deployed

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4420-595: The pigment degenerates into a brown color. This effect can be seen in Georges Seurat's famous painting A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte . The degradation of zinc yellow in Seurat's painting was thoroughly investigated and these findings were subsequently employed in a digital rejuvenation of the painting. Zinc chromate putty was used as sealant in addition to two O-rings between sections of

4505-542: The quality of the aircraft, less so by the performance—although this was later put down to using 85 octane fuel rather than the 100 octane required by the Sakae engine. The American military discovered many of the A6M's unique attributes when they recovered a largely intact specimen of an A6M2, the Akutan Zero , on Akutan Island in the Aleutians . During an air raid over Dutch Harbor on 4 June 1942, one A6M fighter

4590-596: The rear or high side and did relatively little damage because of our armor. It also is desired to call attention to the fact that there was an absence of the fancy stunting during pull outs or approaches for attacks. In this battle, the Japs dove in, made the attack and then immediately pulled out, taking advantage of their superior climb and maneuverability. In attacking fighters, the Zeros usually attacked from above rear at high speed and recovered by climbing vertically until they lost some speed and then pulled on through to complete

4675-521: The reduced drag allowed the diving speed to be increased to 670 km/h (415 mph). On the downside, turning and range, which were the strengths of the Model 21, suffered due to smaller ailerons, decreased lift and greater fuel consumption. The shorter range proved a significant limitation during the Solomons Campaign, during which Zeros based at Rabaul had to travel nearly to their maximum range to reach Guadalcanal and return. Consequently,

4760-468: The requirements could be met, but only if the aircraft were made as light as possible. Every possible weight-saving measure was incorporated into the design. Most of the aircraft was built of a new top-secret aluminium alloy developed by Sumitomo Metal Industries in 1936. Called " extra super duralumin ", it was lighter, stronger and more ductile than other alloys used at the time but was prone to corrosive attack, which made it brittle. This detrimental effect

4845-471: The second half of 1943, and has been published widely in a number of Japanese books. While the engine cowling is the same of previous Model 32 and 22, the theory proposes that the plane is an early production Model 52. The Model 32, 22, 22 Kō, 52, 52 Kō and 52 Otsu were all powered by the Nakajima Sakae Mod. 21 engine. That engine kept its designation in spite of changes in the exhaust system for

4930-451: The ship using arresting wires . Although this system is more costly than alternative methods, it provides greater flexibility in carrier operations, since it allows the aircraft to operate with higher payloads. Ships with CATOBAR currently include the U.S. Nimitz class , the U.S. Gerald R. Ford -class , and France's Charles de Gaulle . The use of catapults allows an aircraft carrier to launch large fixed-wing aircraft. For example,

5015-499: The ship was stationary or adequate wind over the deck could not be arranged by sailing into the wind. Even aircraft as large as the North American B-25 Mitchell were launched in this manner. This was possible because the ship's speed with even the lightest prevailing winds, combined with a low take-off speed allowed early aircraft to gain flying speed in a very short distance. The most extreme version of this

5100-662: The ship. The Kuznetsov-class aircraft carriers of the Russian Navy and People's Liberation Army Navy operate the Su-33 (Russia) and J-15 (China) as STOBAR aircraft. Others include the Indian Vikramaditya and Vikrant ; both will operate MiG-29Ks . Prior to World War II, the weight of most aircraft allowed them to be launched from aircraft carriers under their own power, but required assistance in stopping. Catapults were installed but were used only when

5185-400: The standard United States Navy fighter of the time. The A6M's airframe was "built like a fine watch"; the Zero was constructed with flush rivets , and even the guns were flush with the wings. The instrument panel was a "marvel of simplicity… with no superfluities to distract [the pilot]". What most impressed the experts was that the Zero's fuselage and wings were constructed in one piece, unlike

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5270-519: The time. Early models were fitted with servo tabs on the ailerons after pilots complained that control forces became too heavy at speeds above 300 kilometres per hour (190 mph). They were discontinued on later models after it was found that the lightened control forces were causing pilots to overstress the wings during vigorous maneuvers. The A6M is usually known as the "Zero" from its Japanese Navy aircraft_type designation , Type 0 carrier fighter ( Rei shiki Kanjō sentōki , 零式艦上戦闘機 ), taken from

5355-435: The toughness of early Grumman aircraft was a factor in preventing the Zero from attaining total domination: I had full confidence in my ability to destroy the Grumman and decided to finish off the enemy fighter with only my 7.7 mm machine guns. I turned the 20mm cannon switch to the 'off' position, and closed in. For some strange reason, even after I had poured about five or six hundred rounds of ammunition directly into

5440-514: The upper half of the cowling. The wings were redesigned to reduce span, eliminate the folding tips, and square off the wingtips. The inboard edge of the aileron was moved outboard by one rib, and the wing fuel tanks were enlarged accordingly to 420 L (110 US gal). The two 20 mm wing cannon were upgraded from the Type 99 Mark 1 to the Mark 2, which required a bulge in the sheet metal of

5525-479: The war. The Mitsubishi A5M fighter was just entering service in early 1937, when the Imperial Japanese Navy started looking for its eventual replacement. On 5 October 1937, it issued "Planning Requirements for the Prototype 12-shi Carrier-based Fighter", sending them to Nakajima and Mitsubishi. Both firms started preliminary design work while awaiting more definitive requirements a few months later. Based on

5610-481: The wing below each cannon. The wings also included larger ammunition boxes and thus allowing 100 rounds per cannon. The Sakae 21 engine and other changes increased maximum speed by only 11 km/h (6.8 mph) compared to the Model 21, but sacrificed nearly 1,000 km (620 miles) of range. Nevertheless, the Navy accepted the type and it entered production in April 1942. The shorter wingspan led to better roll, and

5695-515: Was applied to one or two prototype planes fitted with an experimental turbo-supercharged Sakae engine designed for high altitude. Mitsubishi's involvement in the project was probably quite limited or nil; the unmodified Sakae engine was made by Nakajima. The design and testing of the turbo-supercharger was the responsibility of the First Naval Air [Technical] Arsenal ( 第一海軍航空廠 , Dai Ichi Kaigun Kōkūshō ) at Yokosuka. At least one photo of

5780-504: Was better to swoop down from above in a high-speed pass, fire a quick burst, then climb quickly back up to altitude. A short burst of fire from heavy machine guns or cannon was often enough to bring down the fragile Zero. These tactics were regularly employed by Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters during Guadalcanal defense through high-altitude ambush, which was possible with an early warning system consisting of coastwatchers and radar . Such "boom-and-zoom" tactics were also successfully used in

5865-433: Was compiled and sent to the U.S. The second, an A6M2-21 (Serial V-173), made a forced landing near Tietsan airfield 17 February 1941. The pilot was shot before he could destroy his plane, the fuel system fixed, and it was taken into Chinese service. The plane was extensively flown and studied by a team which included Gerhard Neumann , and a detailed and illustrated report was sent to Washington. Overall they were impressed with

5950-501: Was contemplated by Hitachi, but not undertaken. The A6M6 was developed to use the Sakae 31a engine, featuring water-methanol engine boost and self-sealing wing tanks. During preliminary testing, its performance was considered unsatisfactory due to the additional engine power failing to materialize and the unreliability of the fuel injection system. Testing continued on the A6M6 but the end of war stopped further development. Only one prototype

6035-798: Was countered with a zinc chromate anti-corrosion coating applied after fabrication. No armour protection was provided for the pilot, engine or other critical points of the aircraft, and self-sealing fuel tanks , which were becoming common among other combatants, were not used. This made the Zero lighter, more maneuverable, and one of the longest-ranged single-engine fighters of World War II, which made it capable of searching out an enemy hundreds of kilometres away, bringing it to battle, then returning to its base or aircraft carrier. However, that tradeoff in weight and construction also made it prone to catching fire and exploding when struck by enemy fire. With its low-wing cantilever monoplane layout, retractable wide-set conventional landing gear , and enclosed cockpit,

6120-671: Was first used to good effect during the Battle of Midway and later over the Solomon Islands . Many highly experienced Japanese aviators were lost in combat, resulting in a progressive decline in pilot quality, which became a significant factor in Allied successes. Unexpected heavy losses of pilots at the Battles of the Coral Sea and Midway dealt the Japanese carrier air force a blow from which it never fully recovered. Throughout

6205-469: Was found over a month later by an American salvage team and was shipped to Naval Air Station North Island , where testing flights of the repaired A6M revealed both strengths and deficiencies in design and performance. The experts who evaluated the captured Zero found that the plane weighed about 2,360 kg (5,200 lb) fully loaded, some 1,260 kg (2,780 lb) lighter than the F4F Wildcat,

6290-483: Was hit by ground-based anti-aircraft fire. Losing oil, Flight Petty Officer Tadayoshi Koga attempted an emergency landing on Akutan Island about 20 miles (32 km) northeast of Dutch Harbor, but his Zero flipped over on soft ground in a sudden crash-landing. Koga died instantly of head injuries (his neck was broken by the tremendous impact), but his wingmen hoped he had survived and so went against Japanese doctrine to destroy disabled Zeros. The relatively undamaged fighter

6375-518: Was initially called "Hap". General "Hap" Arnold , commander of the United States Army Air Forces , objected to that name, however, so it was changed to "Hamp". The first Zeros (pre-series of 15 A6M2) went into operation with the 12th Rengo Kōkūtai in July 1940. On 13 September 1940, the Zeros scored their first air-to-air victories when 13 A6M2s led by Lieutenant Saburo Shindo, escorting 27 G3M "Nell" medium-heavy bombers on

6460-410: Was introduced. The fuel tanks were moved to the outer wings, fuel lines for a 330 L (87 US gal) drop tank were installed under each wing and the internal fuel capacity was increased to 570 L (150 US gal). More importantly, it regained its capabilities for long operating ranges, similar to the previous A6M2 Model 21, which was vastly shortened by the Model 32. However, before

6545-579: Was made in June 1943 by modifying an A6M3 and was first flown in August 1943. The first Model 52 is said in the handling manual to have production number 3904, which apparently refers to the prototype. Research by Mr. Bunzo Komine published by Mr. Kenji Miyazaki states that aircraft 3904 through 4103 had the same exhaust system and cowl flaps as on the Model 22. This is partially corroborated by two wrecks researched by Mr. Stan Gajda and Mr. L. G. Halls, production number 4007 and 4043, respectively. (The upper cowling

6630-433: Was produced. Carrier-based aircraft Such aircraft are designed for many purposes including air-to-air combat , surface attack , anti-submarine warfare (ASW) , search and rescue (SAR) , transport (COD) , weather observation , reconnaissance and airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) duties. The term is generally applied only to fixed-wing aircraft , as naval helicopters are able to operate from

6715-481: Was shortened slightly. Through production number 4550, the lowest exhaust stacks were approximately the same length as those immediately above them. This caused hot exhaust to burn the forward edge of the landing gear doors and heat the tires. Therefore, from number 4551 Mitsubishi began to install shorter bottom stacks. Nakajima manufactured the Model 52 at its Koizumi plant in Gunma Prefecture . The A6M5 had

6800-438: Was slightly redesigned from that of the Model 22.) An early production A6M5 Zero with non-separated exhaust, with an A6M3 Model 22 in the background. A new exhaust system provided an increment of thrust by aiming the stacks aft and distributing them around the forward fuselage. The new exhaust system required "notched" cowl flaps and heat shields just aft of the stacks. (Note, however, that the handling manual translation states that

6885-637: Was the battleship platforms used during the 1920s when small, World War I-era biplane fighters such as the Sopwith Camel were launched from only a few dozen feet long mounted atop of a battleship 's forward gun turret . Conventional aircraft, such as the Curtiss P-40 Warhawk , Republic P-47 Thunderbolt , Supermarine Spitfire , and Hawker Hurricane , were often delivered to overseas air bases by aircraft carrier. They would be loaded onto an aircraft carrier in port by cranes, flown off

6970-434: Was to be mounted in all aircraft, along with a radio direction finder for long-range navigation. The maneuverability was to be at least equal to that of the A5M, while the wingspan had to be less than 12 m (39 ft) to allow for use on aircraft carriers. Nakajima's team considered the new requirements unachievable and pulled out of the competition in January. Mitsubishi's chief designer, Jiro Horikoshi , thought that

7055-465: Was used extensively on aircraft by the US military, especially during the 1930s and 1940s. It is also used in a variety of paint coatings for the aerospace and automotive industries. Its use as a corrosion-resistant agent was applied to aluminium alloy parts first in commercial aircraft, and then in military ones. During the 1940 and 1950s it was typically found as the "paint" in the wheel wells of retractable landing gear on US military aircraft to protect

7140-657: Was usually referred to by its pilots as the Reisen ( 零戦 , zero fighter), "0" being the last digit of the imperial year 2600 (1940) when it entered service with the IJN. The official Allied reporting name was " Zeke ", although the name "Zero" was used colloquially as well. The Zero is considered to have been the most capable carrier-based fighter in the world when it was introduced early in World War II , combining excellent maneuverability and very long range. The Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service also frequently used it as

7225-551: Was well underway by the early 1920s, resulting in ships such as HMS  Argus (1918), Hōshō (1922), USS  Langley (1922), and Béarn (1927). With these developments, the need for specialized aircraft adapted for take-offs and landings from the flight decks of those ships became recognized. The significance of air power grew between the wars, driven by the increased range, carrying power, and effectiveness of carrier-launched aircraft, until it became impossible to disregard its importance during World War II, following

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