The American Gas Association ( AGA ) is an American trade organization founded in 1918 representing and advocating on behalf of local energy companies which deliver natural gas throughout the United States.
103-672: The American Gas Association was formed in June 1918 after the merger of the American Gas Institute and the National Commercial Gas Association, organizations serving the interests of companies that dealt in manufactured, as opposed to natural, gas. Manufactured gas was the dominant fuel in the early United States; during the 19th century natural gas supplanted it. In January 1919, the AGA launched
206-508: A DTA was signed between Czech Republic and South Korea. The treaty eliminates double taxation between these two countries. In this case, a Korean resident (person or company) that receives dividends from a Czech company needs to balance the Czech dividend withholding tax but also the Czech tax on profits, profits of the company that pays the dividends. The treaty covers taxation of dividends and interest. Under this treaty, dividends that are paid to
309-483: A company resident in India. Simultaneously, investments made before 1 April 2017 have been grandfathered and will not be subject to capital gains taxation in India. Where such capital gains arise during the transition period from 1 April 2017 to 31 March 2019, the tax rate will be limited to 50% of the domestic tax rate of India. However, the benefit of 50% reduction in tax rate during the transition period shall be subject to
412-550: A company. The Third Protocol amends the agreement with effect from 1 April 2017 to provide for source based taxation of capital gains arising on transfer of shares in a company. This will curb revenue loss, prevent double non-taxation and streamline the flow of investments. In order to provide certainty to investors, investments in shares made before 1 April 2017 have been grandfathered subject to fulfillment of conditions in Limitation of Benefits clause as per 2005 Protocol. Further,
515-641: A consignment of LNG from Lake Charles, Louisiana , US, to a new LNG terminal on Canvey Island , in the Thames estuary in Essex, England. A 212-mile (341 km) long high-pressure trunk pipeline was built from Canvey Island to Bradford. The pipeline and its branches provided Area Gas Boards with natural gas for use in reforming processes to make town gas. A large-scale LNG reception plant was commissioned on Canvey in 1964, which received LNG from Algeria in two dedicated tankers, each of 12,000 tonnes. The slow decline of
618-520: A country to a tax resident of another country. Under the Income Tax Act 1961 of India , there are two provisions, Section 90 and Section 91, which provide specific relief to taxpayers to save them from double taxation. Section 90 (bilateral relief) is for taxpayers who have paid the tax to a country with which India has signed double taxation avoidance agreements, while Section 91 (unilateral relief) provides benefit to tax payers who have paid tax to
721-482: A country with which India has not signed an agreement. Thus, India gives relief to both kinds of taxpayers. The rates differ from country to country. Example of double taxation avoidance agreement benefit: Suppose interest on NRI bank deposits attracts 30 per cent tax deduction at source in India. Since India has signed double taxation avoidance agreements with several countries, tax may be deducted at only 10 to 15 per cent instead of 30%. In case of any conflict between
824-441: A credit is usually allowed against the tax levied by the country in which the taxpayer resides for taxes levied in the other treaty country, resulting in the taxpayer paying no more than the higher of the two rates. Some treaties provide for an additional tax credit for tax which would have been otherwise payable had it not been for incentive measures in the other country which result in exemption or reduction of tax. In January 2018,
927-496: A feedstock to manufacture town gas. These facilities utilised the chemical reaction processes described above. The rise of oil as a feedstock to manufacture town gas is shown on the graph below. The peak usage in 1968/9 and subsequent decline coincides with the availability of North Sea gas which, over the next few years, displaced town gas as a primary fuel and led to the decline of oil as a feedstock for gas making, as shown. Oil-based town gas production, millions of therms By
1030-453: A foreign tax credit (FTC) for tax paid on foreign-source income. The EM method requires the home country to collect the tax on income from foreign sources and remit it to the country where it arose. Tax jurisdiction extends only to the national border. When countries rely on territorial principle as described above, they usually depend on the EM method to relieve double taxation. But the EM method
1133-446: A future foundation site for American energy. The AGA President presented the idea that switching millions of tractor trailers to natural gas would have played a substantial role not only in reducing the amount of foreign oil consumed by America but would ultimately reduce the production carbon emissions which contributes to global warming. McCurdy also argues drilling in some Marcellus states have had revitalized dying towns while keeping
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#17327807491921236-512: A grandfathering clause has been provided for investments made prior to 1 April 2017, in respect of which capital gains would continue to be taxed in the country of which taxpayer is a resident. It also provides for assistance between the two countries for collection of taxes and updates the provisions related to Exchange of Information to accepted international standards. The India–Singapore double taxation avoidance agreement at present provides for residence based taxation of capital gains of shares in
1339-574: A number of other countries, under which both countries agree on which taxes will be paid to which country. For example, the DTA with the United States provides that, in the case of royalties, the US will tax Australian residents at the rate of 5%, and Australia will tax it at normal Australian rates (i.e., 30% for companies) but give a credit for the 5% already paid. For Australian residents, this results in
1442-493: A priority for the gas association at least as far back as December 2019." As of 2021, four U.S. states have passed bills ensuring that gas service can be provided to new structures. The American Gas Association has also worked with the (FERC) Federal Energy Regulatory Commission to improve market transparency reporting. In 2004, the FERC issued a policy statement on price reporting and price index publishing. The following year,
1545-406: A producer (generator), carburettor and a super heater connected in series with gas pipes and valves. During a make run, steam would be passed through the generator to make blue water gas. From the generator the hot water gas would pass into the top of the carburettor where light petroleum oils would be injected into the gas stream. The light oils would be thermocracked as they came in contact with
1648-606: A publication for the natural gas industry providing information on trends, activities, and strategies on how to improve gas companies. In 1925, the association formed laboratories in Cleveland , and five years later expanded to Los Angeles. These labs developed technology to improve gas appliances and equipment, making them more energy-efficient and consumer-friendly. The labs also did testing to ensure gas equipment conformed to national standards for safety, durability, and performance. The AGA ended its laboratory activities in 1997 and
1751-511: A subsidiary may make substantial income in one country but remit that income (as license fees, for example) to a holding company in another country that has a lower rate of corporation tax. Because of this, the control of unreasonable tax avoidance of corporations becomes more difficult and it requires more investigation when goods, rights and services are transferred. Countries may reduce or avoid double taxation either by providing an exemption from taxation (EM) of foreign-source income or providing
1854-456: A transition period, some states have a separate arrangement. They may offer each non-resident account holder the choice of taxation arrangements: either (a) disclosure of information as above, or (b) deduction of local tax on savings interest at source as is the case for residents). A 2013 study by Business Europe says that double taxation remains a problem for European MNEs and an obstacle for cross border trade and investments. In particular,
1957-413: A two-year transition period from 1 April 2017 to 31 March 2019 has been provided during which capital gains on shares will be taxed in source country at half of normal tax rate, subject to fulfillment of conditions in Limitation of Benefits clause. The Third Protocol also inserts provisions to facilitate relieving of economic double taxation in transfer pricing cases. This is a taxpayer friendly measure and
2060-517: Is tax resident ( i.e. , and paying taxes on his or her salary and benefits) elsewhere, then it may be possible to claim tax relief under a particular Double Tax Treaty. The relevant 183 day period is either 183 days in a calendar year or in any period of 12 months, depending upon the particular treaty involved. So, for example, the Double Tax Treaty with the UK looks at a period of 183 days in
2163-554: Is an agreement by electric utilities and natural gas companies to use a special template to report efforts in the areas of environmental, social, governance, and sustainability ("ESG/sustainability") to the financial sector. Both the AGA and EEI expect that most of their member companies will be using the NGSI reporting template by the end of 2019. The reporting template provides both quantitative data and qualitative information. The American Gas Association has faced financial issues regarding
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#17327807491922266-488: Is demonstrated in this graph. Coal-based town gas production, millions of therms New technologies for manufacturing coal gas using oil, refinery tail gases, and light distillates were developed. Processes included the Lurgi Process , catalytic reforming , the catalytic rich gas process, steam reforming of rich gas, and the gas recycle hydrogenator process. The catalytic rich gas process used natural gas as
2369-472: Is entitled to an exclusion (exemption) of part or all of his earned income , i.e. personal service income, as distinguished from income from capital or investments. (See IRS form 2555.) If some income is not covered by this exclusion, foreign taxes paid on it can be claimed as a credit. Double taxation can also happen within a single country. This typically happens when sub-national jurisdictions have taxation powers, and jurisdictions have competing claims. In
2472-472: Is growing rapidly and has become rather influential. Thus, dealing with cross-border taxation matters turns into one of the significant financial and trade projects of China, and the problems of cross-border taxation is still increasing. In order to solve the problems, the multilateral tax treaties between countries, which can provide legal support to help enterprises from both sides with double taxation avoidance and tax issues solutions, are established. To fulfill
2575-428: Is in line with India's commitments under Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) Action Plan to meet the minimum standard of providing Mutual Agreement Procedure (MAP) access in transfer pricing cases. The Third Protocol also enables application of domestic law and measures concerning prevention of tax avoidance or tax evasion. Singapore's investment of $ 5.98 billion has over taken Mauritius's investment of $ 4.85 billion as
2678-449: Is now a restored gasworks museum). The Portadown site has been cleared and is now the subject of a long-term experiment into the use of bacteria for the purpose of cleaning up contaminated industrial land. As well as requiring little processing before use, natural gas is non-toxic; the carbon monoxide (CO) in town gas made it extremely poisonous, accidental poisoning and suicide by gas being commonplace. Poisoning from natural gas appliances
2781-549: Is only common for certain income classes or sources, such as international shipping income for example. The FTC method is used by countries that tax (individual or corporate) residents on income, irrespective of where it arises. The FTC method requires the home country to allow credit against domestic tax liability where the person or company pay foreign income tax. Another solution used is 'relief provision'. They create more favorable terms for multinational companies to (remain) based in countries that use less effective measures than
2884-515: Is only due to incomplete combustion, which creates CO, and flue leaks to living accommodation. As with town gas, a small amount of foul-smelling substance ( mercaptan ) is added to the gas to indicate to the user that there is a leak or an unlit burner, the gas having no odour of its own. The organisation of the British gas industry adapted to these changes, first, by the Gas Act 1965 by empowering
2987-507: Is shown in the graph below. Until 1968 this was from supplies of LNG from Algeria, until North Sea gas was available from 1968. Natural gas available, millions of therms The exploitation of the North Sea gas reserves , entailing landing gas at Easington , Bacton and St Fergus made viable the building of a national distribution grid, of over 3,000 miles (4,800 km), consisting of two parallel and interconnected pipelines running
3090-461: Is there longer than six months is considered a part-year resident, that person will then owe taxes to both states on money earned in state B. College or university students may also be subject to claims of more than one state, generally if they leave their original state to attend school, and the second state considers students to be residents for tax purposes. In some cases one state will give a credit for taxes paid to another state, but not always. In
3193-530: Is today generally referred to as a manufactured gas plant (MGP). In the early years of MGP operations, the goal of a utility gas works was to produce the greatest amount of illuminating gas. The illuminating power of a gas was related to amount of soot -forming hydrocarbons ("illuminants") dissolved in it. These hydrocarbons gave the gas flame its characteristic bright yellow color. Gas works would typically use oily bituminous coals as feedstock. These coals would give off large amounts of volatile hydrocarbons into
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3296-653: The Energy Policy Act of 2005 included market behavior and provisions and penalties, and FERC issued a rule prohibiting market manipulation . The AGA co-launched what is known as the Natural Gas Sustainability Initiative (NGSI) with the investor-owned utility company trade association Edison Electric Institute (EEI). The two groups launched the pilot for the NGSI in 2017, and then released "version two" in August 2019. The NGSI
3399-663: The " going global " strategy of China and support the domestic enterprises to adapt to the globalization situation, China has been making efforts on promoting and signing multilateral tax treaties with other countries to achieve mutual interests. By the end of November 2016, China has officially signed 102 double taxation avoidance agreements. Out of which 98 agreements have already entered into force. In addition, China signed double taxation avoidance arrangement with Hong Kong and Macau Special Administrative Region . China also signed double taxation avoidance agreement with Taiwan in August 2015, which has not entered into force yet. According to
3502-399: The 1850s by Sir William Siemens . The incandescent fuel bed would be alternately blasted with air followed by steam. The air reactions during the blow cycle are exothermic, heating up the bed, while the steam reactions during the make cycle, are endothermic and cool down the bed. The products from the air cycle contain non-calorific nitrogen and are exhausted out the stack while the products of
3605-432: The 1860s. Gas oil (an early form of gasoline) was the flammable waste product from kerosene refining, made from the lightest and most volatile fractions (tops) of crude oil. In 1875 Thaddeus S. C. Lowe invented the carburetted water gas process. This process revolutionized the manufactured gas industry and was the standard technology until the end of manufactured gas era. A CWG generating set consisted of three elements;
3708-428: The 1960s, manufactured gas, compared with its main rival in the energy market, electricity, was considered "nasty, smelly, dirty and dangerous" (to quote market research of the time) and seemed doomed to lose market share still further, except for cooking where its controllability gave it marked advantages over both electricity and solid fuel. The development of more efficient gas fires assisted gas to resist competition in
3811-713: The Chinese State Administration of Taxation , the first double taxation avoidance agreement was signed with Japan in September 1983. The latest agreement was signed with Cambodia in October 2016. As for the situation of state disruption, China would continue the signed agreement after the disruption. For example, China first signed double taxation avoidance agreement with Czechoslovakia Socialist Republic in June 1987. In 1990, Czechoslovakia divided into two countries, Czech Republic and Slovakia Republic, and
3914-566: The EM or FTC method. In the European Union , member states have concluded a multilateral agreement on information exchange . This means that they will each report (to their counterparts in each other jurisdiction) a list of those people who have claimed exemption from local taxation on grounds of not being a resident of the state where the income arises. These people should have declared that foreign income in their own country of residence, so any difference suggests tax evasion . (For
4017-590: The Gas Council to acquire and supply gas to the twelve area gas boards . Then, the Gas Act 1972 formed the British Gas Corporation as a single commercial entity, embracing all the twelve area gas boards, allowing them to acquire, distribute and market gas and gas appliances to industrial commercial and domestic customers throughout the UK. In 1986, British Gas was privatised and the government no longer has any direct control over it. During
4120-567: The German tax year (which is the same as the calendar year); thus, a citizen of the UK could work in Germany from 1 September through the following 31 May (9 months) and then claim to be exempt from German tax. As the double taxation avoidance agreements will give the protection of income from some countries. Different factors such as political and social stability, an educated population, a sophisticated public health and legal system, but most of all
4223-487: The LNG plant on Canvey. The Fuel Policy White Paper of 1967 (Cmd. 3438) pointed the industry in the direction of building up the use of natural gas speedily to 'enable the country to benefit as soon as possible from the advantages of this new indigenous energy source'. As a result, there was a 'rush to gas' for use in peak load electricity generation and in low grade uses in industry. The growth in availability of natural gas
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4326-438: The Limitation of Benefits Article. Taxation in India at full domestic tax rate will take place from financial year 2019–20 onwards. The revised double taxation avoidance agreement between India and Cyprus signed on 18 November 2016, provides for source based taxation of capital gains arising from alienation of shares, instead of residence based taxation provided under the double taxation avoidance agreement signed in 1994. However,
4429-606: The PGC." Milkov Later clarified that "that’s jargon for 'the U.S. has abundant resources of natural gas.’" At an Edison Electric Institute (EEI) meeting of U.S. investor-owned utility company executives in November 2019, the American Gas Association and EEI announced a new initiative for energy companies to measure and disclose methane emissions from their natural gas suppliers. In September 2011, Dave McCurdy
4532-536: The President and CEO of the American Gas Association has expressed optimism towards the growth of energy sources in the near future. AGA's president argues how the United States current energy policy is divorced from the economic reality that natural gas has a good chance of competing in the marketplace if the United States is willing to navigate away from dependence on foreign oil. McCurdy has remained optimistic by speculating that consumer demand will increase during
4635-577: The Royal Parks. The production process differs from other methods used to generate gaseous fuels known variously as manufactured gas , syngas , Dowson gas, and producer gas . These gases are made by partial combustion of a wide variety of feedstocks in some mixture of air, oxygen, or steam, to reduce the latter to hydrogen and carbon monoxide although some destructive distillation may also occur. Manufactured gas can be made by two processes: carbonization or gasification . Carbonization refers to
4738-541: The Second World War as petroleum shortages forced Nazi Germany to develop the Fischer–Tropsch synthesis to produce synthetic fuel for aircraft and tanks. The by-products of coal gas manufacture included coke , coal tar , sulfur and ammonia and these were all useful products. Dyes, medicines such as sulfa drugs , saccharine , and dozens of organic compounds are made from coal tar. The coal used, and
4841-636: The US foreign earned income exclusion ) – income is taxed from the first penny earned. While double taxation agreements do provide for relief from double taxation, Hungary only has some 73 of them in place. This means that Hungarian citizens receiving income from the 120-odd countries and territories that Hungary has no treaty with will be taxed by Hungary, regardless of any tax already paid elsewhere. India has comprehensive double taxation avoidance agreement with 88 countries, out of which 85 have entered into force. This means that there are agreed rates of tax and jurisdiction on specified types of income arising in
4944-436: The US, the term "double taxation" is sometimes used to refer to dividend taxation. This situation arises when corporate profits are considered to have been taxed twice: first when earned by the corporation (corporation tax) and again when the profits are distributed to shareholders or stockholders as a dividend or other distribution (dividend tax). In recent years, the development of overseas investment of Chinese enterprises
5047-419: The United States a person may legally have only a single domicile . However, when a person dies different states may each claim that the person was domiciled in that state. Intangible personal property may then be taxed by each state making a claim. In the absence of specific laws prohibiting multiple taxation, and as long as the total of taxes does not exceed 100% of the value of the tangible personal property,
5150-408: The agreement quantity, China is now next only to United Kingdom. For those countries which have not signed the double taxation avoidance agreements with China, some of them signed information exchange agreements with China. There are mainly four effects of signing Double Taxation Avoidance agreement. 1. Eliminate the double taxation, decrease the tax cost of "going global" enterprises. 2. Increase
5253-492: The association on February 28, 2019. Since 1990, possibly earlier, the organization has registered as a lobbyist to discuss issues pertaining to the natural gas industry with elected officials of the government. AGA President and CEO Karen Harbert and independent lobbyist George Lowe are considered among the most powerful government lobbyists in Washington DC. in 2014 Lowe was named as vice president of federal affairs for
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#17327807491925356-435: The basis of non-residence in that country , but then does not declare it as foreign income in the other country; or who claims local tax relief on a foreign tax deduction at source that had not actually happened. The term "double taxation" can also refer to the taxation of some income or activity twice. For example, corporate profits may be taxed first when earned by the corporation ( corporation tax ) and again when
5459-413: The case of sales taxes ). Double liability may be mitigated in a number of ways, for example, a jurisdiction may: Jurisdictions may enter into tax treaties with other countries , which set out rules to avoid double taxation. These treaties often include arrangements for exchange of information to prevent tax evasion – such as when a person claims tax exemption in one country on
5562-414: The certainty of taxation, decrease the risk of cross-border taxation 3. Decrease the tax burden of "going global" enterprises in the host country, improve the competitiveness of those enterprises. 4. When taxation disputes occur, the agreements can provide bidirectional consultation mechanism, solve the existed disputed problems. Under general conditions, the tax rate under tax treaty is often lower than
5665-616: The coal gas, but would leave behind a crumbly, low-quality coke not suitable for metallurgical processes. Coal or coke oven gas typically had a calorific value between 10 and 20 megajoules per cubic metre (270 and 540 Btu/cu ft); with values around 20 MJ/m (540 Btu/cu ft) being typical. The advent of electric lighting forced utilities to search for other markets for manufactured gas. MGPs that once almost exclusively produced lighting gas shifted their efforts towards supplying gas for heating and cooking, and even refrigeration and cooling. Fuel gas for industrial use
5768-596: The corporate taxation makes the Netherlands a very attractive country of doing business in. The Netherlands levies corporate income tax at a 25 per cent rate. Residents taxpayers are taxed on their worldwide income. Non-residents taxpayers are taxed on their income derived from Dutch sources. There are two sorts of double taxation relief in The Netherlands. Economic double taxation relief is available with regard to proceeds from substantial equity investments under
5871-406: The country in which it arises. In other cases, the resident may pay a withholding tax to the country where the income arose, and the taxpayer receives a compensating foreign tax credit in the country of residence to reflect the fact that tax has already been paid. In the former case, the taxpayer would declare himself (in the foreign country) a non-resident. In either case, the DTA may provide that
5974-573: The country's utility industry; this law continued to be enforced until 2005. During the 1930s, the AGA formed the National Advertising Committee to oversee a nationwide advertising program promoting gas for cooking, water heating, refrigeration, and house heating. Karen Alderman Harbert became the association's president and CEO on April 1, 2019. She is a former federal government official and leader of energy industry organizations. She replaces Dave McCurdy who retired from
6077-438: The courts will allow such multiple taxation. Also, since each state makes its own rules on who is a resident for tax purposes, someone may be subject to the claims by two states on his or her income. For example, if someone's legal/permanent domicile is in state A, which considers only permanent domicile to which one returns for residency but he or she spends seven months of the year (say April–October) in state B where anyone who
6180-452: The creation of thousands of jobs. The AGA President also explains methods on how to meet the Obama administration's goal of the development electric vehicles by 2025 by suggesting that the U.S. capital on natural gas and the development of infrastructure investments. While the American Gas Association believes that natural gas is considered a necessity in the United States they also believe that
6283-465: The development of natural gas supply and transmission—during the 1940s and 1950s in the United States and during the late 1960s and 1970s in the United Kingdom and Australia—almost all gas for fuel and lighting was manufactured from coal. Town gas was supplied to households via municipally owned piped distribution systems. Sometimes, this was called syn gas , in contrast to natural gas. At
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#17327807491926386-410: The devolatilization of an organic feedstock to yield gas and char . Gasification is the process of subjecting a feedstock to chemical reactions that produce gas. The first process used was the carbonization and partial pyrolysis of coal . The off gases liberated in the high-temperature carbonization ( coking ) of coal in coke ovens were collected, scrubbed and used as fuel. Depending on the goal of
6489-481: The domestic tax rate under the law of host country. Take Russia as an example, in Russia, the standard withholding tax rate of interest and royalty under domestic law is both 20%. According to the newest tax treaty China signed with Russia, the withholding tax rate of interest is 0 and the withholding tax rate of royalty is 6%. This can obviously reduce the tax cost of enterprises, increase the willing of "going global" and
6592-482: The era of North Sea gas , many of the original cast iron gas pipes installed in towns and cities for town gas were replaced by plastic . As reported in the DTI Energy Review 'Our Energy Challenge' January 2006 North Sea gas resources have been depleted at a faster rate than had been anticipated and gas supplies for the UK are being sought from remote sources, a strategy made possible by developments in
6695-430: The fuel gas by enriching it with CO and hydrogen (H 2 ) produced by water gas reactions. Producer gas has a very low calorific value of 3.7 to 5.6 MJ/m (99 to 150 Btu/cu ft); because the calorific gases CO/H 2 are diluted with much inert nitrogen (from air) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) (from combustion) The problem of nitrogen dilution was overcome by the blue water gas (BWG) process, developed in
6798-455: The fuel-economy requirements of the country cannot be meet without the production of natural gas. Coal gas Coal gas is a flammable gaseous fuel made from coal and supplied to the user via a piped distribution system. It is produced when coal is heated strongly in the absence of air. Town gas is a more general term referring to manufactured gaseous fuels produced for sale to consumers and municipalities. The original coal gas
6901-556: The future, according to the Potential Gas Committee (PGC). The committee is a nonprofit industry-funded organization. "Specifically, the United States possesses a technically recoverable natural gas resource base of 2,817 trillion cubic feet (TCF) yet to be discovered, said Alexei V. Milkov, a professor and director of the PGC at the Colorado School of Mines , which provides guidance and technical assistance to
7004-616: The gas utility industry is expected to raise approximately $ 100 billion in capital in the following 20 years after 2002, which can be hampered if profits (dividends) from investments are highly taxed. The main goal was to develop a natural gas infrastructure in the United States. Fritts also stated that "natural gas demand is expected to grow 50 percent between 2003 until 2020; utilities must raise substantial capital to build 255,000 miles of natural gas distribution pipe to meet that demand." The United States has enough domestic natural gas to meet demands for several industries for several decades into
7107-497: The gas-using equipment of almost thirteen million domestic, four hundred thousand commercial, and sixty thousand industrial customers were converted. Many dangerous appliances were discovered in this exercise and were taken out of service. The UK town gas industry ended in 1987 when operations ceased at the last town gas manufacturing plants in Northern Ireland (Belfast, Portadown and Carrickfergus; Carrickfergus gas works
7210-622: The industry produced) to marketing management (meeting the needs and desires of customers) and the lifting of an early moratorium preventing nationalised industries from using television advertising , saved the gas industry for long enough to provide a viable market for what was to come. In 1959 the Gas Council in Great Britain demonstrated that liquid natural gas (LNG) could be transported safely, efficiently and economically over long distances by sea. The Methane Pioneer shipped
7313-627: The initial agreement signed with Czechoslovakia Socialist Republic was continually used in two new countries. In August 2009, China signed the new agreement with Czech Republic. And when it comes to the special case of Germany, China continued using the agreement with The Federal Republic of Germany after two Germanys reunited. China have signed double taxation avoidance agreement with many countries. Among them, there are not only countries which have made large investment in China, but also countries which as well-relationship recipient of Chinese investment. As for
7416-407: The latter one, when same transaction, item of income or capital is taxed in two or more states but in hands of different person, double taxation arises. It is not unusual for a business or individual who is resident in one country to make a taxable gain (earnings, profits) in another country. It could happen that a person will need to pay tax on that income locally and also in the country in which it
7519-498: The length of the country. This became the National Transmission System . All gas equipment in Great Britain (but not Northern Ireland) was converted (by the fitting of different-sized burner jets to give the correct gas/air mixture) from town gas to natural gas (mainly methane ) over the period from 1967 to 1977 at a cost of about £100 million, including writing off redundant town gas manufacturing plants. All
7622-410: The market for room heating. Concurrently a new market for whole house central heating by hot water was being developed by the oil industry and the gas industry followed suit. Gas warm air heating found a market niche in new local authority housing where low installation costs gave it an advantage. These developments, the realignment of managerial thinking away from commercial management (selling what
7725-574: The new CSA International took its place. CSA today still runs a U.S. certification-type program from the AGA's original Cleveland laboratory. In 1927, the AGA merged with the National Gas Association to help the AGA's member companies which depended on manufactured gas to make a smooth transition to natural gas. In 1935, Congress passed the Public Utility Act and broke up the holding company that dominated much of
7828-474: The next few years. McCurdy suggests that one of the main economic issues in the United States concerns its addiction to foreign oil. The President of the American Gas Association has developed a few proposals to reduce carbon emissions that contribute to global warming. McCurdy mentions how the discovery of natural gas in the Marcellus State region from upstate New York to Kentucky can transform into
7931-566: The organization. He previously served as a senior staff member for two Alaskan senators, Lisa Murkowski and Ted Stevens . As an advocacy group for gas suppliers, the AGA created a social media campaign called "Cooking With Gas" featuring online influencer Amber Kelly. The campaign's goal was to illustrate the benefits of natural gas to younger consumers. In addition, the organization has fought to pass state laws barring local governments from restricting gas use in new buildings. According to an investigation by National Public Radio, "state laws became
8034-448: The other party will be taxed at the maximum of 5% of the total amount of dividend for legal entities as well as for individuals. This treaty reduces from 10% to 5% the limit for taxing paid interest. Copyrights to literature, works of art etc. still remain free from taxation. For patents or trademarks a maximum 10% tax rate is implied. If a foreign citizen is in Germany for less than a relevant 183-day period (approximately six months) and
8137-449: The participation. Juridical double taxation relief is available for resident taxpayers having foreign source income items. In both situations there is a combined system in place which makes difference in active and passive income . Hungary is unique as it is the only non-developing country (the other, developing country being Eritrea, at a flat 2%) that considers all of its citizens tax residents, and provides no personal allowance (such as
8240-437: The plant, the desired product was either a high quality coke for metallurgical use, with the gas being a side product, or the production of a high quality gas, with coke being the side product. Coke plants are typically associated with metallurgical facilities such as smelters or blast furnaces , while gas works typically served urban areas. A facility used to manufacture coal gas, carburetted water gas (CWG), and oil gas
8343-469: The problematic areas are limitation in interest deductibility, foreign tax credits, permanent establishment issues and diverging qualifications or interpretations. Germany and Italy have been identified as the Member States in which most double taxation cases have occurred. Cyprus has entered into over 45 double taxation treaties and is negotiating with many other countries. Under these agreements,
8446-430: The production process included coal tars and ammonia , which were important raw materials (or "chemical feedstock ") for the dye and chemical industry with a wide range of artificial dyes being made from coal gas and coal tar. Facilities where the gas was produced were often known as a manufactured gas plant (MGP) or a gasworks . In the United Kingdom the discovery of large reserves of natural gas, or sea gas as it
8549-422: The profits are distributed to shareholders as a dividend or other distribution ( dividend tax ). There are two types of double taxation: jurisdictional double taxation, and economic double taxation. In the first one, when source rule overlaps, tax is imposed by two or more countries as per their domestic laws in respect of the same transaction, income arises or deemed to arise in their respective jurisdictions. In
8652-526: The provisions of the Income Tax Act or double taxation avoidance agreement, the provisions of the latter prevail. A large number of foreign institutional investors who trade on the Indian stock markets operate from Singapore and the second being Mauritius . According to the tax treaty between India and Mauritius, capital gains arising from the sale of shares are taxable in the country of residence of
8755-467: The same liability as if the royalties had been earned in Australia, while the US retains the 5% credit. In principle, United States citizens are liable to tax on their worldwide earnings, wherever they reside. However, some measures mitigate the resulting double tax liability. An individual who is a bona fide resident of a foreign country or is physically outside the United States for an extended time
8858-629: The shareholder and not in the country of residence of the company whose shares have been sold. Therefore, a company resident in Mauritius selling shares of an Indian company will not pay tax in India. Since there is no capital gains tax in Mauritius, the gain will escape tax altogether. The Protocol for amendment of the India-Mauritius Convention signed on 10 May 2016, provides for source-based taxation of capital gains arising from alienation of shares acquired from 1 April 2017 in
8961-418: The single largest investor for the year 2013–14. In principle, an Australian resident is taxed on their worldwide income, while a non-resident is taxed only on Australian-sourced income. Both legs of the principle may give raise to taxation in more than one jurisdiction. To avoid double taxation of income by different jurisdictions, Australia has entered into double taxation avoidance agreements (DTAs) with
9064-473: The steam cycle are kept as blue water gas. This gas is composed almost entirely of CO and H 2 , and burns with a pale blue flame similar to natural gas. BWG has a calorific value of 11 MJ/m (300 BTU/cu ft). Blue water gas lacked illuminants; it would not burn with a luminous flame in a simple fishtail gas jet as existed prior to the invention of the gas mantle in the 1890s. Various attempts were made to enrich BWG with illuminants from gas oil in
9167-401: The steel industry's coke ovens' by-products plants, coal gas is no longer made in the UK. It was replaced first by gas made from oil and later by natural gas from the North Sea . Double taxation Double taxation is the levying of tax by two or more jurisdictions on the same income (in the case of income taxes ), asset (in the case of capital taxes ), or financial transaction (in
9270-580: The taxation of dividends . In 2002, The American Gas Association's main priority was to eliminate double taxation on dividends. AGA analyst Charlie Fritts voiced his opinions about the opposition of double taxation due to the possible effects it can have on gas companies. The United States tax code has also been seen as problematic by the American Gas Association, as according to the AGA it creates an uneven playing field for companies that pay dividends and gas companies that maintain most of their earnings. Fritts had also viewed double taxation as problematic because
9373-449: The technologies of pipelaying that enable the transmission of gas over land and under sea across and between continents . Natural gas is now a world commodity . Such sources of supply are exposed to all the risks of any import. Monty Python parodied the conversion from coal to North Sea gas, and the jumping through hoops some encountered, in their "New Cooker Sketch," as part of the episode that began its second series in 1970. Coal gas
9476-535: The time, a frequent method of committing suicide was the inhalation of gas from an unlit oven. With the head and upper body placed inside the appliance, the concentrated carbon monoxide would kill quickly. Sylvia Plath famously ended her life with this method. Originally created as a by-product of the coking process, its use developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries tracking the Industrial Revolution and urbanization . By-products from
9579-403: The town gas and by-products produced, by the major three gas companies of London are summarised in the table. Coke is used as a smokeless fuel and for the manufacture of water gas and producer gas . Coal tar was subjected to fractional distillation to recover various products, including Used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid Used in the manufacture of fertilisers Coal gas
9682-540: The town gas industry in the UK was driven by the discovery of natural gas by the drilling rig Sea Gem , on 17 September 1965, some forty miles off Grimsby , over 8,000 feet (2,400 m) below the seabed. Subsequently, the North Sea was found to have many substantial gas fields on both sides of the median line defining which nations should have rights over the reserves. In a pilot scheme customers on Canvey Island were converted from town gas to natural gas supplied from
9785-447: The two taxation authorities exchange information about such declarations. Because of this communication between the countries, they also have a better view on individuals and companies who are trying to avoid or evade tax . Individuals ("natural persons") can only be resident for tax purposes in one country at a time. Corporate persons, owning foreign subsidiaries, can be based in one country and simultaneously based in another country:
9888-450: The unemployment rate below the national average. McCurdy has been criticized for his proposal requiring the acquisition of natural gas because of the possibility of hydraulic fracturing leading to polluted water supplies. Despite, the long-term issues of McCurdy's proposals, at the state level the short-term benefits are replaced by the realization that natural gas is not only an alternative solution to foreign oil but can also contribute to
9991-399: The white hot checkerwork fire bricks inside the carburettor. The hot enriched gas would then flow into the superheater, where the gas would be further cracked by more hot fire bricks. Following the Second World War the slow recovery of the British coal mining industry led to shortages of coal and high prices. The decline of coal as a feedstock for town gas production using carbonisation
10094-455: Was initially manufactured by independent companies but in the United Kingdom many of these later became municipal services . In 1948 there was a total of 1,062 gas undertakings. Both the private companies, about two-thirds of the total, and the municipal gas undertakings, about one-third, were nationalised under the Gas Act 1948 . Further restructuring took place under the Gas Act 1972 . For further details see British Gas plc . Apart from in
10197-552: Was known colloquially, in the Southern North Sea off the coasts of Norfolk and Yorkshire in 1965 led to the expensive conversion or replacement of most of Britain's gas cookers and gas heaters, from the late 1960s onwards, the process being completed by the late 1970s. Any residual gas lighting found in homes being converted was either capped off at the meter or, more usually, removed altogether. As of 2023, some gas street lighting still remains, mainly in central London and
10300-414: Was made using producer gas technology. Producer gas is made by blowing air through an incandescent fuel bed (commonly coke or coal ) in a gas producer. The reaction of fuel with insufficient air for total combustion produces carbon monoxide (CO); this reaction is exothermic and self-sustaining. It was discovered that adding steam to the input air of a gas producer would increase the calorific value of
10403-407: Was made. The stated goals for entering into a treaty often include reduction of double taxation, eliminating tax evasion, and encouraging cross-border trade efficiency. It is generally accepted that tax treaties improve certainty for taxpayers and tax authorities in their international dealings. A DTA (double tax agreement) may require tax to be levied by the country of residence, and be exempt in
10506-462: Was produced by the coal gasification reaction, and the burnable component consisted of a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen in roughly equal quantities by volume. Thus, coal gas is highly toxic . Other compositions contain additional calorific gases such as methane , produced by the Fischer–Tropsch process , and volatile hydrocarbons together with small quantities of non-calorific gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen . Prior to
10609-469: Was used to power several historic balloon ascents in the 19th century (see The Aeronauts ). In many ways, Germany took the lead in coal gas research and carbon chemistry. With the labours of August Wilhelm von Hofmann , the whole German chemical industry emerged. Using the coal gas waste as feedstock, researchers developed new processes and synthesized natural organic compounds such as Vitamin C and aspirin . The German economy relied on coal gas during
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