133-737: The Committee of Hong Kong–Kowloon Chinese Compatriots of All Circles for the Struggle Against Persecution by the British Authorities in Hong Kong , often shortened to the Struggle Committee , was a political committee which opposed the British colonial administration in Hong Kong . It was established by pro- Chinese Communist Party (CCP) activists during the 1967 Hong Kong riots . Yeung Kwong ,
266-506: A Radio Guangdong report broadcast on 27 May 1967 gave the name "Hong Kong and Kowloon All Circles Struggle Committee to Oppose Persecution by the Hong Kong British Authorities". Other translations include the "Hong Kong and Kowloon Struggle Committee of Chinese Compatriots from All Circles Against British Persecution" and the "Hong Kong–Kowloon All Sectors Anti-Persecution Struggle Committee". "Struggle Committee"
399-752: A dependent territory of the United Kingdom from 1841 to 1997, with a period of Japanese occupation from 1941 to 1945 during World War II . The colonial period began with the British occupation of Hong Kong Island under the Convention of Chuenpi in 1841 of the Victorian era . In accordance with Art. III of the Treaty of Nanking of 1842, signed in the aftermath of the First Opium War ,
532-579: A preference for sons , remained prevalent. Nuclear families were the most common households, although multi-generational and extended families were not unusual. In British-ruled Hong Kong, polygamy was legal until 1971 pursuant to the colonial practice of not interfering in local customs that British authorities viewed as relatively harmless to the public order. Spiritual concepts such as feng shui were observed; large-scale construction projects often hired consultants to ensure proper building positioning and layout. The degree of its adherence to feng shui
665-537: A 'united front' tool which did not even discuss the strategy for the struggle. The committee held only two meetings during the riots and had no grasp of what happened in the later stages of the disturbances. The colonial authorities later discovered that radicals within the Xinhua News Agency 's Hong Kong branch, which acted as the PRC's de facto embassy in the colony, were actually responsible for orchestrating
798-468: A centre for international trade. In the colony's first decade, the revenue from the opium trade was a key source of government funds. The importance of opium reduced over time, but the colonial government was dependent on its revenues until the Japanese occupation in 1941. Although the largest businesses in the early colony were operated by British, American, and other expatriates, Chinese workers provided
931-476: A conduit for international trade shielded it from most PRC pressure during the 1950s. Hong Kong received Chinese refugees - "Rightists" - fleeing the Chinese Civil War and communist persecution. They became cheap labour. Some were recruited in Hong Kong as anti-communist militants. A major cause of the 1956 Hong Kong riots started by "Rightists" was poverty. The response to the riots favoured
1064-762: A fast track to the Civil Service . Cadet officers gradually formed the backbone of the civil administration. After the Second World War, ethnic Chinese were allowed into the service, followed by women. Cadets were renamed Administrative Officers in the 1950s, and they remained the elite of the Civil Service during British rule. Prior to and during the Second World War , the garrison was composed of British Army battalions and locally enlisted personnel (LEPs) who served as regular members in
1197-515: A forward policy. In March 1857, Palmerston appointed Lord Elgin as Plenipotentiary, with the aim of securing a new and satisfactory treaty. A French expeditionary force joined the British to avenge the execution of a French missionary in 1856. In 1860, the capture of the Taku Forts and occupation of Beijing led to the Treaty of Tientsin and Convention of Peking . In the Treaty of Tientsin,
1330-583: A military administration with himself as its head. He formally accepted the Japanese surrender on 16 September in Government House . Young, upon his return as governor in May 1946, pursued political reform known as the " Young Plan ", believing that, to counter the Chinese government's determination to recover Hong Kong, it was necessary to give local inhabitants a greater stake in the territory by widening
1463-606: A number of other pro-CCP groups founded the Committee of Hong Kong–Kowloon Chinese Compatriots of All Circles for the Struggle Against Persecution by the British Authorities in Hong Kong, or Struggle Committee for short. The goal of creating the Struggle Committee was to establish a central command to lead the anti-colonial demonstrations. The government of the People's Republic of China (PRC) announced its support for
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#17327808202861596-483: A policy approach that combined centralized leadership with intense mass mobilization, and that this mode of governance is defined by continuous experimentation and improvisation. According to academics Jérôme Doyon and Chloé Froissart, the adaptive capacity resulting from a heritage of guerrilla warfare has made the CCP adept in dealing with uncertainty and has translated into a capacity to experiment first and then systemize
1729-525: A revision of the terms. In October 1856, Chinese authorities in Canton detained the Arrow , a Chinese-owned ship registered in Hong Kong to enjoy the protection of the British flag. The Consul in Canton, Harry Parkes , claimed the hauling down of the flag and arrest of the crew were "an insult of very grave character". Parkes and Sir John Bowring , the fourth Governor of Hong Kong , seized the incident to pursue
1862-474: A safe exit for the British, with the costs involved to be resolved between the two governments. When Elliot promised that the British government would pay for their opium stock, the merchants surrendered their 20,283 chests of opium, which were destroyed in public . In September 1839, the British Cabinet decided that the Chinese should be made to pay for the destruction of British property, either by
1995-401: A safe haven for dissidents, political refugees, and officials who lost power. British policy allowed dissidents to live in Hong Kong as long as they did not break local laws or harm British interests. The implementation of this policy varied according to what the senior officials thought constituted British interests and the state of relations with China. The Canton–Hong Kong strike (1925–1926)
2128-705: A separate political system, and the territory's rapid development during the late 20th century. Most migrants of that era fled poverty and war, reflected in the prevailing attitude toward wealth; Hongkongers tended to link self-image and decision-making to material benefits. Residents' sense of local identity remained post-handover, with the majority of the population (52%) identifying as "Hongkongers", while 11% described themselves as "Chinese". The remaining population held mixed identities, 23% as "Hongkonger in China" and 12% as "Chinese in Hong Kong". Traditional Chinese family values, including family honour , filial piety , and
2261-680: A trap for the foreign traders, and the confinement of the British with supplies cut off was tantamount to starving them into submission or death. He instructed the Elliot cousins to occupy one of the Chusan Islands in the Hangzhou Bay delta across from Shanghai , then to present a letter from himself to a Chinese official for the Emperor of China , then to proceed to the Gulf of Bohai for
2394-696: A treaty, and if the Chinese resisted, then to blockade the key ports of the Yangtze and Yellow rivers. Palmerston demanded a territorial base in the Chusan Islands for trade so that British merchants "may not be subject to the arbitrary caprice either of the Government of Peking, or its local Authorities at the Sea-Ports of the Empire". In 1841, Elliot negotiated with Lin's successor, Qishan , in
2527-683: A variable number of vice premiers , five state councilors (protocol equal of vice premiers but with narrower portfolios), the secretary-general , and 26 ministers and other cabinet-level department heads . It consists of ministries and agencies with specific portfolios. The State Council presents most initiatives to the NPCSC for consideration after previous endorsement by the CCP's Politburo Standing Committee . China's judicial organs are political organs that perform prosecutorial and court functions. Because of their political nature, China does not have judicial independence . China's courts are supervised by
2660-571: Is assisted by several vice premiers , currently four, each of them overseeing a certain area of administration. The premier, vice premiers and the State Councilors collectively form the inner cabinet that regularly convenes for the State Council Executive Meeting. The State Council includes 26 constituent ministries, and officially oversees the provincial-level governments throughout China. Generally,
2793-534: Is based on the principle of unified state power , in which the legislature, the National People's Congress (NPC), is constitutionally enshrined as "the highest state organ of power." As China's political system has no separation of powers , there is only one branch of government which is represented by the legislature. The CCP through the NPC enacts unified leadership, which requires that all state organs, from
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#17327808202862926-479: Is more assertive than the NPC itself and has vetoed proposed laws. The CCP Politburo Standing Committee consists of the government's top leadership. Historically it has had five to nine members. As of 2024, it has seven members. Its officially mandated purpose is to conduct policy discussions and make decisions on major issues when the Politburo, a larger decision-making body, is not in session. According to
3059-529: Is the most common English-language abbreviation for the group. Other abbreviations include the "Anti-British Struggle Committee" and the "All-Circles Anti-Persecution Struggle Committee". Three labour strikes began in Hong Kong on 1 May 1967 ( International Workers' Day ), including one at Hong Kong Artificial Flower Works, a factory producing artificial flowers in San Po Kong . Locals in the neighbourhood had long endured poor living conditions and neglect from
3192-679: The 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre . On the relationship between the government and the CCP, James Palmer, writing for Foreign Policy , states that, "[t]he Chinese government is essentially the shadow of the Communist Party, moving as the party does, and consequently government roles matter far less than party ones." According to The Economist , "[e]specially when meeting foreigners, officials may present name cards bearing government titles but stay quiet about party positions which may or may not outrank their state jobs." According to scholar Rush Doshi , "[t]he Party sits above
3325-658: The Chief of the Defence Staff of the United Kingdom, Field Marshal Sir Charles Guthrie , also attended. Representing China were the CCP General Secretary and President of China , Jiang Zemin ; Premier of China , Li Peng ; and Tung Chee-hwa , the first Chief Executive of Hong Kong . This event was broadcast on television and radio stations across the world. Hong Kong was a Crown colony of
3458-573: The Chinese economic reform , China has been characterized by a high degree of political centralization but significant economic decentralization. The central government sets the strategic direction while local officials carry it out, including developing the details of policy. Academics Sebastian Heilmann and Elizabeth Perry write that policy-making in China is influenced by the Chinese Communist Revolution , resulting in
3591-493: The Convention of Chuenpi during the First Opium War . On 20 January, Elliot announced "the conclusion of preliminary arrangements", which included the cession of the barren Hong Kong Island and its harbour to the British Crown . Elliot chose Hong Kong Island instead of Chusan because he believed a settlement nearer to Shanghai would cause an "indefinite protraction of hostilities", whereas Hong Kong Island's harbour
3724-675: The Great Hall of the People on the west side of Tiananmen Square , Beijing . These annual meetings are usually timed to occur with the meetings of the CPPCC, providing an opportunity for the officers of state to review past policies and present future plans to the nation. The NPC generally has a reputation of approving the work of the State Council and not engaging in overmuch drafting of laws itself. However, it and its Standing Committee have occasionally asserted themselves. For example,
3857-654: The Great Hall of the People . The Hong Kong and Macau Affairs Office at first proposed a list of 60–80 Hong Kong people to attend the ceremony. The number was finally extended to 101. The list included Hong Kong government officials, members of the Legislative and Executive Councils, chairmen of The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation and Standard Chartered Bank , Hong Kong celebrities such as Li Ka-shing , Pao Yue-kong and Fok Ying-tung , and also Martin Lee Chu-ming and Szeto Wah . The handover ceremony
3990-585: The State Council , the NPC's executive organ, is the premier . The CCP general secretary is China's leading official since the CCP is tasked with formulating and setting national policy which the state, after being adopted by the NPC or relevant state organ, is responsible for implementing. The State Council, also referred to as the Central People's Government, consists of, besides the Premier,
4123-587: The Supreme People's Court to the President of China , are elected by, answerable to, and have no separate powers than those granted to them by the NPC. By law, all elections at all levels must adhere to the leadership of the CCP. The CCP controls appointments in all state bodies through a two-thirds majority in the NPC. The remaining seats are held by nominally independent delegates and eight minor political parties , which are non- oppositional and support
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4256-563: The 1980s, films such as A Better Tomorrow , As Tears Go By , and Zu Warriors from the Magic Mountain expanded global interest beyond martial arts films ; locally made gangster films, romantic dramas, and supernatural fantasies became popular. Hong Kong cinema continued to be internationally successful over the following decade with critically acclaimed dramas such as Farewell My Concubine , To Live and Wong Kar Wai movies. The city's martial arts film roots were evident in
4389-577: The 1990s, when the Four Heavenly Kings dominated Asian record charts. Despite a general decline since late in the decade, Western classical music historically had a strong presence in Hong Kong and remained a large part of local musical education. The publicly funded Hong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra , the territory's oldest professional symphony orchestra, frequently hosted musicians and conductors from overseas. The Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra , composed of classical Chinese instruments ,
4522-479: The British Hong Kong authorities. Liu Yat-yuen, another member of the executive committee, stated: Some people thought the Struggle Committee directed the actions of the anti-British struggle, and even ordered the planting of bombs. It was a misunderstanding. People outside the leftist camp thought the struggle committee was a leading group for the riots, but it was only a nominal leading organisation or
4655-680: The British colonial government. John Cooper, a British writer who was living in Hong Kong at the time, spoke to San Po Kong's susceptibility to civil unrest: Street upon street of tall dilapidated buildings vied with each other for the limited space available, hundreds upon hundreds of hostile citizens lived out their lives in human rabbit warrens, plenty of workers were available to start a riot, plenty of workers' organisations existed to support it, and plenty of students would come along to give it political backing. On 6 May, picketing workers clashed with management at Hong Kong Artificial Flower Works, and police were subsequently brought in to forcefully end
4788-706: The British sought to extend Hong Kong for defence. After negotiations began in April 1898, with the British Minister in Beijing, Sir Claude MacDonald , representing Britain, and diplomat Li Hongzhang leading the Chinese, the Second Convention of Peking was signed on 9 June. Since the foreign powers had agreed by the late 19th century that it was no longer permissible to acquire outright sovereignty over any parcel of Chinese territory, and in keeping with
4921-544: The British. However, the Japanese Empire had severe logistical difficulties and by 1943 the food supply for Hong Kong was problematic. The overlords became more brutal and corrupt, and the Chinese gentry became disenchanted. With the surrender of Japan, the transition back to British rule was smooth, for on the mainland the Nationalist and Communist forces were preparing for a civil war and ignored Hong Kong. In
5054-696: The CCP's constitution, the General Secretary of the Central Committee must also be a member of the CCP Politburo Standing Committee. The membership of the PSC is strictly ranked in protocol sequence . Historically, the general secretary (or party chairman ) has been ranked first; the rankings of other leaders have varied over time. Since the 1990s, the general secretary (also the president), premier, chairman of
5187-438: The CCP, and are mostly CCP members. All government departments, state-owned enterprises and public institutes include CCP committees, from the village level to the national level. The CCP committees in government bodies supervise and lead the bodies, with the State Council legally required to implement CCP policies. As outlined by the CCP constitution: "Government, the military, society and schools, north, south, east and west –
5320-535: The CCP, and effectively acts as the state arm of the CCDI. It replaced the former Ministry of Supervision . The Supreme People's Court is the judicial organ of the People's Republic of China and is subject to the control of the CCP's Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission . Hong Kong and Macau , as special administrative regions, have separate judicial systems based on British common law traditions and Portuguese civil-law traditions, respectively. The judges of
5453-547: The CCP. All government bodies and state-owned enterprises have internal CCP committees that lead the decision-making in these institutions. The NPC meets annually for about two weeks in March to review and approve major new policy directions, and in between those sessions, delegates its powers to the working legislature, the NPC Standing Committee (NPCSC). This organ adopts most national legislation, interprets
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5586-602: The Chinese accepted British demands to open more ports, navigate the Yangtze River, legalise the opium trade and have diplomatic representation in Beijing. During the conflict, the British occupied the Kowloon Peninsula , where the flat land was valuable training and resting ground. The area in what is now south of Boundary Street and Stonecutters Island was ceded in the Convention of Peking. In 1898,
5719-594: The Chinese government under Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek that if Japan attacked Hong Kong, the Chinese National Army would attack the Japanese from the rear to relieve pressure on the British garrison. On 8 December, the Battle of Hong Kong began when Japanese air bombers effectively destroyed British air power in one attack. Two days later, the Japanese breached the Gin Drinkers Line in
5852-597: The General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, the top leader in the one-party system. The office is officially regarded as an institution of the state rather than an administrative post; theoretically, the president serves at the pleasure of the National People's Congress, the legislature, and is not legally vested to take executive action on its own prerogative. The current president is Xi Jinping, who took office in March 2013. The office
5985-730: The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR), and Hong Kong's previous capitalist system and its way of life would remain unchanged for a period of 50 years. The Joint Declaration provides that these basic policies shall be stipulated in the Hong Kong Basic Law . The ceremony of the signing of the Sino-British Joint Declaration took place at 18:00, 19 December 1984 at the Western Main Chamber of
6118-711: The Hong Kong Squadron of the Royal Navy or the Hong Kong Military Service Corps and their associate land units. The Hong Kong Brigade served as the main garrison formation. After the outbreak of the Second World War, the garrison was reinforced with British Indian Army and Canadian Army units. A second brigade, the Kowloon Infantry Brigade, was formed to assist in commanding the expanded force. The garrison
6251-430: The Letters Patent and Royal Instructions. The Executive Council determined administrative policy changes and considered primary legislation before passing it to the Legislative Council for approval. This advisory body also itself issued secondary legislation under a limited set of colonial ordinances. The Legislative Council debated proposed legislation and was responsible for the appropriation of public funds. This chamber
6384-425: The NPC Standing Committee , the chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference , the secretary of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection , the party's top anti-graft body, and the first-ranked secretary of the CCP secretariat have consistently also been members of the Politburo Standing Committee. Ranked below the party's Politburo Standing Committee are deputy state leaders including
6517-441: The New Territories. The British commander, Major-General Christopher Maltby , concluded that the island could not be defended for long unless he withdrew his brigade from the mainland. On 18 December, the Japanese crossed Victoria Harbour . By 25 December, organised defence was reduced into pockets of resistance. Maltby recommended a surrender to Governor Sir Mark Young , who accepted his advice to reduce further losses. A day after
6650-479: The PRC; the PRC provided a list of Taiwanese agents. By this time, Britain no longer considered a Taiwanese conquest of China to be realistic; the evolving discourse on human rights also made it difficult to legitimize being a sponsor of state terrorism . The Sino-British Joint Declaration was signed by both the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and the Premier of the People's Republic of China on 19 December 1984 in Beijing. The Declaration entered into force with
6783-407: The People's Republic of China is put in practice through its comprehensive control of the state, military, and media. The National People's Congress (NPC) is the national legislature of China. With 2,977 members in 2023, it is the largest parliamentary body in the world. Under China's current Constitution, the NPC is structured as a unicameral legislature , with the power to legislate, to oversee
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#17327808202866916-429: The Presidency was gone. The 3rd promulgation in 1978 expanded the number of articles, but was still under the influence of the very-recent Cultural Revolution . The current constitution is the PRC's fourth promulgation, declared on 4 December 1982, and has served as a stable constitution for 30 years. The legal power of the CCP is guaranteed by the PRC Constitution and its position as the supreme political authority in
7049-470: The Rightists; Rightist instigators were lightly prosecuted, compensation was denied to communists and bystanders, and the communists were officially blamed as coinstigators. The lax persecution of the riots Rightists instigators was used by the PRC to criticize the "airy use of the rule of law as a pragmatic stand-in for human rights " that characterized British colonialism. In 1963, Hong Kong suppressed cells of Taiwanese militants in response to demands from
7182-401: The State Council and the CCP were unable to secure passage of a fuel tax in 2009 to finance the construction of expressways . Likewise, the Ministry of Finance has sought to institute property taxes since the early 2010s, but opposition from the NPC (as well as local governments) have prevented any property tax proposals from reaching the NPC's legislative agenda. The NPC Standing Committee
7315-485: The Struggle Committee and ordered the arrests of its members on 12 September. However, former members of the Struggle Committee denied the charges and asserted that the group was non-violent and ultimately an operational failure. Wong Kin-lap, a member of the executive committee, stated that the Struggle Committee followed the principle of acting "on just grounds, to our advantage, and with restraint" ( 有理，有利，有節 ), which he understood to mean non-violence. He also commented on
7448-465: The Struggle Committee held only two meetings. Following the May 1967 riots in Hong Kong, the Struggle Committee published an English-language book titled The May Upheaval in Hong Kong , under the full name Committee of Hong Kong–Kowloon Chinese Compatriots of All Circles for the Struggle Against Persecution by the British Authorities in Hong Kong. However, the group's full name in its original Chinese has been translated variously. An English translation of
7581-409: The Struggle Committee on 15 May, following a series of protests at colonial government buildings in Hong Kong and neighbouring Portuguese Macau . The PRC government condemned what it called the "sanguinary brutality and fascist atrocities of the British imperialists" and listed five demands of the colonial government in Hong Kong: The CCP Central Committee 's newspaper, the People's Daily , praised
7714-513: The Supreme Court were heard by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council , which exercised final adjudication over the entire British Empire. In March 1975 the Hong Kong government introduced a programme to measure public opinion of government efforts, known as Movement of Opinion Direction (MOOD). In 1861, Governor Sir Hercules Robinson introduced the Hong Kong Cadetship, which recruited young graduates from Britain to learn Cantonese and written Chinese for two years, before deploying them on
7847-439: The Supreme People's Court (SPC), which answers to the NPC. The Supreme People's Procuratorate (SPP) is responsible for prosecutions and supervises procuracies at the provincial, prefecture, and county levels. At the same administrative ranking as the SPC and SPP, the National Supervisory Commission (NSC) was established in 2018 to investigate corruption within the CCP and state organs. All courts and their personnel are subject to
7980-497: The Supreme People's Court are appointed by the National People's Congress. The governors of China's provinces and autonomous regions and mayors of its directly administered municipalities are appointed by the State Council after receiving the nominal consent of the National People's Congress (NPC). The Hong Kong and Macau special administrative regions (SARS) have significant local autonomy including separate governments, legal systems, and basic constitutional laws, but must follow
8113-439: The UK and the Commonwealth , as well as Chinese cities and places. Aside from Chinese New Year , Christmas was celebrated as the second-most important festival. In literature , some idioms in Cantonese were directly translated from those in English. A Mandarin Chinese speaker might recognise the words but not understand the meaning. Food in Hong Kong under British rule was primarily based on Cantonese cuisine , despite
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#17327808202868246-437: The United Kingdom Government declared that it would relinquish Hong Kong to the PRC with effect from 1 July 1997. In the document, the People's Republic of China Government also declared its basic policies regarding Hong Kong. In accordance with the One Country, Two Systems principle agreed between the United Kingdom and the People's Republic of China, the socialist system of People's Republic of China would not be practised in
8379-400: The United Kingdom and maintained an administration roughly modelled after the Westminster system . The Letters Patent formed the constitutional basis of the colonial government and the Royal Instructions detailed how the territory should be governed and organised. The Governor was the head of government and appointed by the British monarch to serve as the representative of the Crown in
8512-456: The ability to exercise social control and regulation, (3) coercive resources, (4) the capacity to consult and collaborate with emerging social groups and organizations to balance conflicting interests, and (5) the ability to learn from failures and mistakes. China's fiscal budget has four parts: general fiscal budget, budget for government funds, budget for operating income of state-owned capital, and social insurance budget. The largest part
8645-563: The annual Tuen Ng Festival . The race was revived as a modern sport as part of the Tourism Board 's efforts to promote Hong Kong's image abroad. The first modern competition was organised in 1976, and overseas teams began competing in the first international race in 1993. The Hong Kong Jockey Club , known between 1960 and 1996 as the Royal Hong Kong Jockey Club, became the territory's largest taxpayer. Three forms of gambling were legal in Hong Kong: lotteries, horse racing, and football. During China's turbulent 20th century, Hong Kong served as
8778-625: The authority of government departments is defined by regulations and rules rather than law. The State Council issues regulations on the forms of official government and CCP documentation which govern the level of authority, urgency, and confidentiality required by the document. Official documents include ones which must be strictly implemented by lower levels of government (such as "Decisions" and "Orders"), ones which can be treated more flexibly (such as "Opinions" and "Notices"), and ones with less or more general content (such as "Letters" and "Minutes"). The Central Military Commission (CMC) exercises
8911-437: The base of the government and party hierarchies. Power is concentrated in the "paramount leader," an informal title currently occupied by Xi Jinping, who heads the four most important political and state offices: He is the general secretary of the CCP Central Committee , Chairman of the Central Military Commission , and President of the PRC. Near the end of Hu Jintao's term in office, experts observed growing limitations to
9044-456: The bulk of the manpower to build a new port city. By the late 1980s, many ethnic Chinese people had become major business figures in Hong Kong. Amongst these billionaires was Sir Li Ka-shing , who had become one of the colony's wealthiest people by this time. British Hong Kong was characterised as a hybrid of East and West . Traditional Chinese values emphasising family and education blended with Western ideals, including economic liberty and
9177-437: The call of the Communists was basically heeded by the working men, and their actions practically paralysed the colony for a year. By the [end of the] 1960s, however, the attempts by the Hong Kong government to maintain stability and good order which helped improve everyone's living conditions, and ... the beginning of the emergence of a Hong Kong identity, changed the attitude of the local Chinese. They overwhelmingly rallied around
9310-497: The central government allowed local governments to issue bonds to finance public capital spending for projects like infrastructure and hospitals. The quantity of such bonds is set by the central government. Local governments cannot issue bonds to pay for current spending, such as salaries. China's civil service is divided into tiers. The highest tiers (including department chiefs, deputy department chiefs, and section chiefs) have significant involvement in policy-making. After
9443-416: The central government in foreign policy and national security , and their chief executives are effectively picked by the CCP Politburo. Below the provincial level, there are prefectures and counties. Counties are divided into townships and villages . While most are run by appointed officials, some lower-level jurisdictions have direct elections. While operating under strict control and supervision by
9576-429: The central government, China's local governments manage relatively high share of fiscal revenues and expenditures. Their level of authority and autonomy in economic decision-making is high, and they have played a major role in national economic development. They do not have the right to make tax laws but may have the ability to adjust certain tax rates within boundaries established by the central government. Through
9709-439: The city, carrying copies of Mao Zedong 's Little Red Book and posters condemning the colonial government. They chanted communist slogans and sang Chinese revolutionary songs. In the afternoon, demonstrators attempted to breach into a number of factories, prompting a significant police response. In the evening, the demonstrations devolved into riots, as mobs of local youth joined the demonstrators in throwing stones and bottles at
9842-520: The colonial British regime. 22°17′N 114°10′E / 22.28°N 114.16°E / 22.28; 114.16 Government of the People%27s Republic of China The government of the People's Republic of China is based on a system of people's congress within the parameters of a unitary communist state , in which the ruling Chinese Communist Party (CCP) enacts its policies through people's congresses. This system
9975-556: The colony and more than half of the entire colony's population. With the lease nearing its end during the late 20th century, Britain did not see any viable way to administer the colony by dividing it, whilst the People's Republic of China would not consider extending the lease or allow continued British administration thereafter. With the signing of the Sino-British Joint Declaration in 1984, which stated that
10108-403: The colony being placed under the de facto control of the PRC. During the 1967 riots, the Struggle Committee led strikes in a number of industries, notably transportation, which reportedly involved up to 60,000 workers. It also organised protest marches on the Hong Kong governor's residence. To fund the group's activities, the PRC government gave US$ 3.3 million to the Struggle Committee through
10241-567: The colony until 1974, when Chinese was accorded co-official status. In addition to British English being taught in primary and secondary schools , there were also English-medium schools operated by the English Schools Foundation , established in 1967. For the metro system, the metro lines were named after places instead of numbered, unlike Mainland China , where metro lines were numbered. Roads were named after British royals, governors, famous people, cities and towns across
10374-679: The colony. Executive power was highly concentrated with the Governor, who himself appointed almost all members of the Legislative Council and Executive Council and also served as President of both chambers. The British government provided oversight for the colonial government; the Foreign Secretary formally approved any additions to the Legislative and Executive Councils and the Sovereign held sole authority to amend
10507-458: The constitution and laws, and conducts constitutional reviews , and is headed by the chairman , one of China's top officials. The president represents China abroad, though since the 1990s, the presidency has always been held by the CCP general secretary . Elected separately by the NPC, the vice president has no power other than what the president bestowed on them but assists the president. The head of
10640-621: The cost of providing public goods has devolved to local governments from the central government and therefore local governments need to generate fees to provide public services. Local governments are the key provider of public of goods in China. Since 2014, the National New-Type Urbanization Plan has resulted in the consolidation of planning processes that were formerly distributed across different bureaucracies, such as urban and rural land use, tourism planning, and environmental planning. Beginning in 2015,
10773-463: The demonstrators' "dauntless mettle" and warned the colonial authorities of "going against the historical trend". Hong Kong's then governor, David Trench , became increasingly concerned that the demonstrations were a preliminary attempt by the PRC to take control of the colony. At a press conference he stated, "[the demonstrators'] aim is to Macau us", a reference to the 12-3 incident in Macau, which saw
10906-412: The direction of local policy experiments or pilot programs. The typical approach is that central government leadership begins drafting formal policies, law, or regulations after policy has been developed at local levels. China has a high degree of state capacity . Academic Thomas Heberer attributes China's state capacity to: (1) the legitimacy of its political system as viewed by its citizens, (2)
11039-519: The economic and social systems in Hong Kong would remain relatively unchanged for 50 years, the British government agreed to transfer the entire territory to China upon the expiration of the New Territories lease in 1997 – with Hong Kong becoming a special administrative region (SAR) until at least 2047. In 1836, the imperial government of the Qing dynasty undertook a major policy review of
11172-403: The effective control of the CCP's Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission . The CCP constitution states that the party is the highest force for political leadership. The party's institutions overlap with government institutions and the party has authority over government decisions at both the local and central levels. Senior government officials throughout the country are appointed by
11305-402: The escalation in violence. The leadership of the Struggle Committee claimed that they had no knowledge of Xinhua's covert activities. The Struggle Committee had 104 members who elected a 17-member executive committee. The executive committee was chaired by FTU chairman Yeung Kwong . The executive committee's members were: British Hong Kong Hong Kong was a British colony and later
11438-624: The exchange of instruments of ratification on 27 May 1985 and was registered by the People's Republic of China and United Kingdom governments at the United Nations on 12 June 1985. In the Joint Declaration, the People's Republic of China Government stated that it had decided to resume the exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong (including Hong Kong Island , Kowloon, and the New Territories) with effect from 1 July 1997 and
11571-410: The group's inability to function due to the colonial authorities' strict enforcement of its ban on public assemblies: The regulations put stringent restrictions on public assemblies. Under the circumstances, the committee could not meet at all, let alone take command of the struggle. Consequentially, everybody proceeded with the struggle in his own way without a centralised command and it did no good for
11704-638: The invasion, Chiang ordered three corps under General Yu Hanmou to march towards Hong Kong. The plan was to launch a New Year's Day attack on the Japanese in the Canton region, but before the Chinese infantry could attack, the Japanese had broken Hong Kong's defences. The British casualties were 2,232 killed or missing and 2,300 wounded. The Japanese reported 1,996 killed and 6,000 wounded. The Japanese soldiers committed atrocities, including rape, on many locals. The population fell in half, from 1.6 million in 1941 to 750,000 at war's end because of fleeing refugees; they returned in 1945. The Japanese imprisoned
11837-556: The island of Hong Kong was ceded in perpetuity to Great Britain. It was established as a Crown colony in 1843. In 1860, the British expanded the colony with the addition of the Kowloon Peninsula and was further extended in 1898 when the British obtained a 99-year lease of the New Territories . Although the Qing had to cede Hong Kong Island and Kowloon in perpetuity as per the treaty, the leased New Territories comprised 86.2% of
11970-434: The late 1980s and the early 1990s, the municipal government regulatory mechanisms expanded, as did their capacity to regulate peri-urban areas. The 1994 fiscal reforms resulted in the need of local governments to generate non-tax revenue, which they did in the form of revenues through land development and use fees. This resulted in their increase in both administrative size and geographic size. From 2002 to at least 2023,
12103-405: The long run the occupation strengthened the pre-war social and economic order among the Chinese business community by eliminating some conflicts of interests and reducing the prestige and power of the British. On 14 August 1945, when Japan announced its unconditional surrender, the British formed a naval task group to sail towards Hong Kong. On 1 September, Rear-Admiral Cecil Harcourt proclaimed
12236-517: The main deliberative bodies of China, and are often referred to as the Two Sessions . Aside from the CCP, eight minor political parties participate, but are non- oppositional and have no real power. They must accept the primacy of the CCP to exist and their members are preapproved by the CCP's United Front Work Department . The NPC, elected for a term of five years, holds annual sessions every spring, usually lasting from 10 to 14 days, in
12369-581: The operations of the government, and to elect the major officials of state. Its delegates are elected for a five-year term through a multi-tiered electoral system . According to the Constitution, the NPC is the highest state institution within China's political system. The NPC and the National Committee of the People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), a consultative body whose members represent various people's organizations , are
12502-664: The opium trade, which had been first introduced to the Chinese by Persian then Islamic traders over many centuries. Viceroy Lin Zexu took on the task of suppressing the opium trade. In March 1839, he became Special Imperial Commissioner in Canton , where he ordered the foreign traders to surrender their opium stock. He confined the British to the Canton Factories and cut off their supplies. Chief Superintendent of Trade, Charles Elliot , complied with Lin's demands to secure
12635-686: The opportunity to mobilise their followers to protest against the colonial government. Chinese Communist Party supporters organised the Anti-British Struggle Committee during the riots. Steve Tsang , director of the China Institute of the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London , wrote that it was "ironic" that despite Hong Kong being a symbol of China's humiliation by Britain, there
12768-488: The other territorial cessions China made to Russia , Germany and France that same year, the extension of Hong Kong took the form of a 99-year lease. The lease consisted of the rest of Kowloon south of the Sham Chun River and 230 islands, which became known as the New Territories . The British formally took possession on 16 April 1899. In 1941, during the Second World War, the British reached an agreement with
12901-524: The paramount leader's de facto control over the government, but at the 19th Party Congress in October 2017, Xi Jinping's term limits were removed and his powers were expanded. Under the PRC's constitution, the President of the People's Republic of China is a largely ceremonial office with limited powers. However, since 1993, as a matter of convention, the presidency has been held simultaneously by
13034-577: The party and state systems. The commission is headed by the CMC Chairman. The National Supervisory Commission (NSC) is the highest state supervisory ( anti-corruption ) agency of China. At the same administrative ranking as the Supreme People's Court and Supreme People's Procuratorate , it supervises all public officials who exercise public power. It closely operates together with the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection of
13167-457: The party leads them all." Under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping , there were proposals to increase the separation of the state and the party, especially advocated by more liberal officials such as Zhao Ziyang . The proposals included abolishing CCP committees from some government departments, increasing the influence of the State Council, and having professional managers leader SOEs instead of CCP committees. These proposals were abandoned after
13300-446: The party's chief staff, vice premiers, and the party secretaries of China's most important municipalities and provinces. Ministers and provincial governors are next in rank, followed by deputy ministers and deputy provincial governors. Ministry director generals and sub provincial municipality mayors rank below this, followed by ministry deputy director generals and third-tier city mayors. There are five ranks below these which reach to
13433-455: The police. The pro-CCP Hong Kong and Kowloon Federation of Trade Unions (FTU) was responsible for organising formal demonstrations against the colonial government. To consolidate the movement, the FTU established the Committee of Hong Kong–Kowloon Workers of All Industries for the Struggle Against Persecution by the British Authorities in Hong Kong on 12 May. Four days later, on 16 May, the FTU and
13566-824: The political franchise to include them. Hong Kong remained a part of the UK and overseas colonies from 1949 until it transitioned its colony to a British dependent territory in 1983. The economy was the main concern after the Chinese Civil War . Hong Kong welcomed business from both the PRC and Taiwan . Investments from Taiwan were particularly lucrative, and Taiwanese interests were given preferential treatment in state compensation and justice. The Triads were strongly embedded in Taiwanese economic connections. POlitical activity, covert activity and low intensity violence - including assassinations - by Chinese and Taiwanese agents
13699-496: The results. New policies are often tested locally before being applied more widely, resulting in a policy process that involves experimentation and feedback. This method of first implementing policy through local pilot testing was also used during the Mao era. Generally, high level central government leadership refrains from drafting specific policies, instead using the informal networks and site visits to affirm or suggest changes to
13832-419: The roles of the most prolific Hong Kong actors. Jackie Chan , Donnie Yen , Jet Li , Chow Yun-fat , and Michelle Yeoh frequently play action-oriented roles in foreign films. At the height of the local movie industry in the early 1990s, over 400 films were produced each year; since then, industry momentum shifted to mainland China. The number of films produced annually declined to about 60 in 2017. Cantopop
13965-404: The rule of law. Although the vast majority of the population was ethnically Chinese, Hong Kong developed a distinct identity from the mainland through its long period of colonial administration and a different pace of economic, social, and cultural development, with mainstream culture was derived from immigrants originating from various parts of China. This was influenced by British-style education,
14098-399: The ruling British colonial elite and sought to win over the local merchant gentry by appointments to advisory councils and neighbourhood watch groups. The policy worked well for Japan and produced extensive collaboration from both the elite and the middle class, with far less terror than in other Chinese cities. Hong Kong was transformed into a Japanese colony, with Japanese businesses replacing
14231-442: The state, runs parallel to the state, and is enmeshed in every level of the state." The integration of the CCP and the state has accelerated under Xi Jinping, chairing eight party commissions that direct government bodies. Under Xi, several government and party bodies have also merged, with one party organization having an external state government name under the one institution with two names system, further integrating party and
14364-527: The state-controlled All-China Federation of Trade Unions . The Struggle Committee received support not only from the PRC government, but also from the mainland Chinese population at large. The colonial authorities blamed the Struggle Committee for the bombings which took place during the 1967 riots, and the Hong Kong Bar Association designated the group as a terrorist organisation on 8 September. The colonial government officially banned
14497-466: The state. The Constitution of the PRC was first created on 20 September 1954, before which an interim constitution -like document created by the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference was in force. The second promulgation in 1975 shortened the constitution to just about 30 articles, containing CCP slogans and revolutionary language throughout. The role of courts was slashed, and
14630-562: The supreme command and control over the People's Liberation Army (PLA), the People's Armed Police, and the Militia. It operates within the CCP under the name "Central Military Commission of the Communist Party of China", and as the military arm of the central government under the name "Central Military Commission of the People's Republic of China". Under the arrangement of " one institution with two names ", both commissions have identical personnel, organization and function, and operate under both
14763-599: The territory was taken up by additional British forces who were rotated from Europe. The garrison was further supplemented by LEPs, and Gurkhas . The latter came from Nepal , but formed part of the British Army. The size of the garrison during the Cold War fluctuated and ended up being based around one brigade. The Royal Hong Kong Regiment , a military unit which was part of the Hong Kong Government,
14896-442: The territory's exposure to foreign influences and its residents' varied origins. Rice was the staple food, and was usually served plain with other dishes. Freshness of ingredients was emphasised. Poultry and seafood were commonly sold live at wet markets , and ingredients were used as quickly as possible. There were five daily meals: breakfast, lunch, afternoon tea, dinner, and siu yeh . Dim sum , as part of yum cha (brunch),
15029-655: The territory's first Olympic gold medal at the 1996 Atlanta Olympics , Between 1972 and 1996, Hong Kong athletes won 60 medals at the Paralympic Games . As part of the Commonwealth , British Hong Kong participated in the Commonwealth Games , in which it won 17 medals , the city's last appearance in the Games being in 1994 . Dragon boat races originated as a religious ceremony conducted during
15162-546: The then chairman of the Hong Kong and Kowloon Federation of Trade Unions , led the Struggle Committee as the chairman of a 17-member executive committee. Although the British Hong Kong government blamed the Struggle Committee for a series of bombings during the 1967 riots, the group was dysfunctional and failed to unite the anti-colonial movement in Hong Kong. Before being banned by the colonial authorities in September 1967,
15295-403: The threat or use of force. An expeditionary force was placed under Elliot and his cousin, Rear-Admiral George Elliot , as joint plenipotentiaries in 1840. Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston stressed to the Chinese government that the British government did not question China's right to prohibit opium, but it objected to the way this was handled. He viewed the sudden strict enforcement as laying
15428-442: The title was " Chairman "; after 1982, this translation was changed to " President ", although the Chinese title remains unchanged. In March 2018, presidential term limits were abolished. The State Council is the chief administrative authority and national cabinet of China. It is appointed by the National People's Congress and is chaired by the premier and includes the heads of each governmental department and agency. The premier
15561-487: The unrest. Leftist newspapers in Hong Kong published scathing editorials about the incident the following morning. For example, an editorial by Ta Kung Pao criticised ethnic Chinese policemen for "beating [their] compatriots", describing them as "disgraceful" and urging them to "quickly repent". The original labour disputes had morphed into city-wide political riots by 11 May. On the morning of that day, several pro- Chinese Communist Party (CCP) demonstrators marched around
15694-414: Was a dining-out tradition with family and friends. Dishes include congee , cha siu bao , siu yuk , egg tarts , and mango pudding . Local versions of Western food were served at cha chaan teng (Hong Kong-style cafes). Common cha chaan teng menu items include macaroni in soup, deep-fried French toast, and Hong Kong-style milk tea . Film making in Hong Kong began as early as 1909, but Hong Kong
15827-407: Was a genre of Cantonese popular music which emerged in Hong Kong during the 1970s. Evolving from Shanghai-style shidaiqu , it was also influenced by Cantonese opera and Western pop. Local media featured songs by artists such as Sam Hui , Anita Mui , Leslie Cheung , and Alan Tam ; during the 1980s, exported films and shows exposed Cantopop to a global audience. The genre's popularity peaked in
15960-459: Was a valuable base for the British trading community in Canton. British rule began with the occupation of the island on 26 January. Commodore Gordon Bremer , commander-in-chief of British forces in China, took formal possession of the island at Possession Point , where the Union Jack was raised under a fire of joy from the marines and a royal salute from the warships. Hong Kong Island
16093-489: Was anti-imperialist in nature. The 1966 riots and Maoist -led 1967 riots , essentially spillovers from the Cultural Revolution , were large scale demonstrations fuelled by tensions surrounding labour disputes and dissatisfaction towards the government. Although the 1967 riots started as a labour dispute, the incident escalated quickly after the leftist camp and mainland officials stationed in Hong Kong seized
16226-483: Was believed to determine the success of a business. Bagua mirrors were regularly used to deflect evil spirits, and buildings often lack floor numbers with a 4 ; the number has a similar sound to the word for "die" in Cantonese. A prominent example of cultural integration in everyday life in British Hong Kong, was the use of British English as a common second language , and also the sole official language of
16359-565: Was ceded in the Treaty of Nanking on 29 August 1842 and established as a Crown colony after the ratification exchanged between the Daoguang Emperor and Queen Victoria was completed on 26 June 1843. By 1842, Hong Kong had become the major arms supply port in the Asia-Pacific region. The Treaty of Nanking failed to satisfy British expectations of a major expansion of trade and profit, which led to increasing pressure for
16492-567: Was defeated during the Battle of Hong Kong , by the Empire of Japan . After the Second World War and the end of the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong , the British military reestablished a presence. As a result of the Chinese Civil War , the British Army raised the 40th Infantry Division and dispatched it to garrison Hong Kong. It later left for combat in the Korean War , and the defense of
16625-462: Was deputy to the Governor. The judicial system was based on English law , with Chinese customary law taking a secondary role in civil cases involving Chinese residents. The Supreme Court of Hong Kong was the highest court and ruled on all civil and criminal cases in the colony. During the early colonial period, extraterritorial appellate cases from other regions of China involving British subjects were also tried in this court. Further appeals from
16758-485: Was first established in the Constitution of the People's Republic of China in 1954 and successively held by Mao Zedong and Liu Shaoqi . Liu fell into political disgrace during the Cultural Revolution, after which the office became vacant. The office was abolished under the Constitution of 1975, then reinstated in the Constitution of 1982, but with reduced powers. The official English-language translation of
16891-732: Was held at the new wing of the Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre in Wan Chai on the night of 30 June 1997. The principal British guest was Charles, Prince of Wales (Charles III, King of the United Kingdom) who read a farewell speech on behalf of the Queen . The newly elected Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , Tony Blair ; the Foreign Secretary , Robin Cook ; the departing Governor of Hong Kong , Chris Patten ;
17024-493: Was not a film making hub until the late 1940s, when a wave of Shanghai filmmakers migrated to the territory; these movie veterans helped build the colony's entertainment industry over the next decade. By the 1960s, the city was well known to overseas audiences through films such as The World of Suzie Wong . When Bruce Lee 's The Way of the Dragon was released in 1972, local productions became popular outside Hong Kong. During
17157-399: Was not one major movement started by the Chinese residents of the colony for its retrocession to China, even though there had been several upsurges of Chinese nationalism . He explained: In the 1920s, the working class Chinese of Hong Kong did not have a good reason to rally around the Hong Kong government, and they were more susceptible to appeals based on Chinese nationalism. Consequently,
17290-491: Was reformed in the last years of colonial rule to introduce more democratic representation. Indirectly elected functional constituency seats were introduced in 1985 and popularly elected geographical constituency seats in 1991 . Further electoral reform in 1994 effectively made the legislature broadly representative. The administrative Civil Service was led by the Colonial Secretary (later Chief Secretary), who
17423-644: Was the leading Chinese ensemble and played a significant role in promoting traditional music in the community. Despite its small area, the territory regularly hosted the Hong Kong Sevens , Hong Kong Marathon , Hong Kong Tennis Classic and Lunar New Year Cup , and hosted the inaugural AFC Asian Cup and the 1995 Dynasty Cup . Hong Kong was separately represented from mainland China , with its own sports teams in international competitions. The territory participated in almost every Summer Olympics since 1952 and earned four gold medals . Lee Lai-shan won
17556-436: Was tolerated so long as it did not disrupt public order or threaten British sovereignty. Hong Kong was a base for American-sponsored Taiwanese and anti-communist insurgents and terrorists operating in southern China in the 1950s and early 1960s. The British claimed that increasing policing to control movement from Hong Kong to China was impractical, and that the mutual open border policy was responsible. Hong Kong's value as
17689-589: Was trained and organised along the lines of a British Territorial Army unit. As such, it was supported by British Army regular personnel holding key positions. These British Army personnel, for their duration of service to the Royal Hong Kong Regiment, were seconded to the Hong Kong Government. In the post-WWII era, the majority of the regiment's members were local citizens of Chinese descent. The stability, security, and predictability of British law and government enabled Hong Kong to flourish as
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