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121-465: Spiritual pollution has been called "a deliberately vague term that embraces every manner of bourgeois import from erotica to existentialism ", and is supposed to refer to "obscene, barbarous or reactionary materials, vulgar taste in artistic performances, indulgence in individualism" and statements that "run counter to the country's social system" according to Deng Liqun , the Party's Propaganda Chief at

242-484: A Japanese uniform and katana , which they had captured in battle. Lin then put the uniform and katana on, jumped onto a horse, and rode away from the army. While riding, Lin was spotted alone by a sharpshooter in Yan's army. The soldier was surprised to see a Japanese officer riding a horse in the desolate hills alone. He took aim at Lin and severely injured him. The bullet grazed Lin's head, penetrating deep enough to leave

363-438: A chicken? ... The [fertilized] egg ... itself contains the internal cause for becoming a chicken. Therefore, an egg is a "potential" chicken, while a chicken is a "realized" egg. Another central question is to what extent are Marxism and humanism reconcilable. For Wang and Zhou, Marxism is not equivalent to humanism but it includes the latter; for Hu, the two are distinctively different. At the center of Hu's argumentative framework

484-606: A communist revolutionary, Ong did not accompany Lin, and their marriage effectively ended. After the Kuomintang-Communist split , Lin's commander, Ye Ting, joined forces with He Long and participated in the Nanchang Uprising on 1 August 1927. During the campaign Lin worked as a company commander under a regiment led by Chen Yi . Following the failure of the revolt, Lin escaped to the remote Communist base areas, and joined Mao Zedong and Zhu De in

605-431: A decadent ideology at odds with the goals of socialism. Zhao linked trends in writing and artistic circles to rising instances of crime, murder, rape, and corruption, blaming the growing crime rate on "political and ideological apathy". He called on law enforcement to commence a strike-hard campaign to suppress counterrevolutionaries and criminal activities. Following Zhao's speech, conservative Party journals began linking

726-585: A general refusal to either bathe or eat fruit. Because of his fear of wind and light, his office was gloomy and lacked any ventilation. Some accounts have suggested that Lin became a drug addict, either to opium or morphine. As early as 1953, Soviet doctors diagnosed Lin as suffering from manic depression . Lin's wife, Ye Qun , rejected this diagnosis, but it was later confirmed by Chinese doctors. Lin's fragile health made him vulnerable, passive, and easily manipulated by other political figures, notably Ye Qun herself. Lin's complaints got worse with time and age. In

847-590: A large garrison at Huaide while a second force positioned itself to ambush the force that would predictably be sent to relieve it. On 17 May, they won a major victory and forced the survivors to retreat to Changchun and Siping. By the end of May 1947, Lin's forces had taken control of most of the countryside (everything except for the rail lines and several major cities), infiltrated and destroyed most KMT forces in Manchuria, and re-established contact with isolated Communist forces in southern Liaoning province. After

968-445: A larger movement of cultural reflection, had thus heated up. It was estimated that from 1980 to 1982, there emerged on newspapers 400 plus articles discussing the question of humanism. The debate emerged at the time when there were three strains of Marxists as identified by Bill Brugger and David Kelly. There were "orthodox Marxist-Leninists", commonly found among power holders in the high establishment; "revisionists", widely regarded by

1089-453: A more plausible depiction of human sexuality than in pornography. Additionally, works considered degrading or exploitative tend to be classified by those who see them as such, as "porn" rather than as "erotica" and consequently, pornography is often described as exploitative or degrading. Many countries have laws banning or at least regulating what is considered pornographic material, a situation that generally does not apply to erotica. For

1210-580: A more positive note. For Kelly, who wrote as early as in 1987, there seemed to be a "moral conviction" among intellectuals like Wang Ruoshui to develop, within the framework of Marxism itself, a remedy to the calamities in the fanatical periods of the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution. Wang Ruoshui's focus was, therefore, more on "values rather than institutions" with the demands he made "designed to minimize conflict with

1331-518: A new turn in Wang Ruoshui's hands". In Wang's vision, the notion of freedom was "no longer a utopian vision to be realized in the far-off future state of communism", but had come to resemble the democratic institutions of Western countries, a more concrete goal that can be strived for in the present. Since roughly 1985, Wang "has increasingly made him sound like a champion of bourgeois constitutionalism" through close analysis of young Marx. Because of

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1452-599: A number of subgenres including gay, lesbian , women's , monster , tentacle erotica and bondage erotica . The term erotica is derived from the feminine form of the ancient Greek adjective: ἐρωτικός ( erōtikós ), from ἔρως ( érōs )—words used to indicate lust , and sexual love . Curiosa are curiosities or rarities, especially unusual or erotic books. In the antiquarian book trade, pornographic works are often listed under "curiosa", "erotica" or " facetiae ". Erotica exists in many different forms, both modern and ancient. Erotic art dates back to

1573-731: A permanent impression on his skull. After being shot in the head, Lin fell from his horse and injured his back. Recovering from his wounds and ill with tuberculosis , Lin left for Moscow at the end of 1938, where he served as the representative of the Chinese Communist Party to the Executive Committee of the Communist International . He remained in Moscow until February 1942, working on Comintern affairs and writing for its publication. Lin

1694-492: A prominent conservative in the party, was rumored to have been behind the attacks on humanism and spiritual pollution. In December 1983, less than two months after the campaign began, Deng Xiaoping intervened to end the campaign against spiritual pollution. On December 31 the CPC Central Committee issued a directive urging caution in dealing with religious issues in the context of "removing spiritual pollution on

1815-637: A satellite organization of the Communist Youth League before he graduated high school in 1925. Later in 1925 he participated in the May Thirtieth Movement and enrolled in the newly established Whampoa (Huangpu) Military Academy in Guangzhou . As a young cadet, Lin admired the personality of Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi), who was then the principal of the academy. At Whampoa, Lin also studied under Zhou Enlai , who

1936-694: A topic that is hotly debated. Pornography is often far less regulated than sex work and has fewer legal barriers to production, though it is still a morally controversial profession to some. In the United Kingdom, the Obscene Publications Act of 1857 made the selling of "obscene" materials a statutory offense. This act has been criticized heavily, not just in retrospect, but at the time of enacting. Topics of erotic media have been brought to U.S. state and federal courts for centuries. Some notable cases include People v. Freeman , in which

2057-415: A woman and as an artist was foundational for modern-day feminist erotic media. A distinction is often made between erotica and pornography , although some viewers may not distinguish between them. A key distinction, some have argued, is that pornography's objective is the graphic depiction of sexually explicit scenes. At the same time, erotica "seeks to tell a story that involves sexual themes" that include

2178-400: A worldview that is materialistic as well. When it comes to alienation, the central question becomes to what extent can this concept be applied—in particular to a socialist society. Hu, again, created a dichotomy between alienation as a "basic principle", "theory", and "methodology", and alienation as "a concept that reflects certain phenomenons in certain historical periods". While Marx rejects

2299-416: Is Playboy , a men's magazine founded in the 1950s that helped to shape the modern Western perception on sex and sexuality in the media. Pornographic magazines could also include boudoir photography or pin-up models , though pin-up models are not definitively sexual by nature. Erotic film has evolved greatly with modern filmmaking capabilities, including developing a large subgenre of cartoon pornography ,

2420-446: Is a dichotomy he created between humanism as a "historical, world outlook" and humanism as a system of "ethical principles and moral codes". While the former is "fundamentally conflicting" to Marxism, the latter, in so far it is based on the historical materialist framework of Marxism, can be regarded as a "socialist humanism" that can be accepted and popularized. Wang, again, vehemently opposed such artificial dichotomy. For Wang, "humanism

2541-434: Is a humanism in general". He classifies these theorists as materialists, however, according to their "recognition that humans were the products of society", and as humanists as well because of their "conclusion that society had to be changed as a consequence". Ultimately, Marxism and humanism are compatible for Wang in the sense that there is no necessary linkage between humanism and idealism both as worldviews; humanistic can be

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2662-431: Is an epistemological break between the young and the old Marx that undermines the authenticity of the other side's reference to Marx as a whole. One of the core questions at the center of the debate is which is the "point of departure" for Marx—humans or social relations? This line of argument started with Wang Ruoshui's assertion that "man is the starting point of Marxism" in one of his signature works. For Wang, as long as

2783-708: Is essentially a set of values," one that cannot be separated from worldview and one whose task, beyond that of a worldview, is to make a value judgement of the world for the sake of transforming it, rather than merely an interpretation. Essentially, according to Bill Brugger and David Kelly's reading of Wang, it is this "need for humans to transform society according to human ends" that qualifies humanism to be not necessarily an idealistic worldview. Wang drew from examples of various Western thinkers ranging from Thomas More to John Locke, all of whom shared an idealistic worldview and recognition of humanism, to argue "humanism takes on different forms in different kinds of society" but "there

2904-492: Is from pain." Steinem's argument hinges on the distinction between reciprocity versus domination, as she writes: "Blatant or subtle, pornography involves no equal power or mutuality. In fact, much of the tension and drama comes from the clear idea that one person is dominating the other." Lin Biao Lin Biao ( Chinese : 林彪 ; 5 December 1907 – 13 September 1971) was a Chinese politician and Marshal of

3025-427: Is much superior to a capitalist one," alienation can also happen in a socialist society. More specifically, both of them acknowledged the existence of three sorts of alienation—intellectual, political, and economic. Intellectually, alienation is manifest through people's cult of Mao in the previous era, which runs the risk of being dogmatic and detached from the popular masses; politically, the ever-growing state apparatus

3146-406: Is not the socialist system (Chinese: 制度 ; pinyin: Zhìdù ) but merely certain problems within the "establishment" or "institutional structure" (Chinese: 体制 ; pinyin: Tǐzhì ), which he called for reform. In Brugger and Kelly's conception, the critical elements within the alienation school's theories "have played an important historical role" and that "humanism was in fact taking

3267-560: Is often referred in Western academia as "the alienation school" represented by Wang Ruoshui ( 王若水 ) and Zhou Yang ( 周扬 ), and the official discourse represented by Hu Qiaomu ( 胡乔木 ), then the member in charge of ideological micro-management in the Central Politburo. While the two sides both mainly presented their arguments through interpreting original texts by Marx or Engels , they offer two different distinctly views on

3388-414: Is often taboo in modern culture, especially in media. Censorship is an issue often faced by creators of erotic work, be it art, film, or literature. The legality of creating and publishing erotic works differs in different parts of the word, but it is not uncommon to see heavy regulations placed on the publication of erotic or pornographic media. The legality of cartoon pornography or animated erotic films

3509-452: Is one of the most controversial aspects of erotic censorship. This is because of the gray area surrounding the portrayal of animated, fictional minors engaging in erotic or sexual acts. The legality of pornography with non-animated individuals is only slightly more definitive. Legal and moral issues regarding pornography and erotica can tie into arguments regarding the legalization or decriminalization of prostitution and sex work at large,

3630-420: Is supported by Wang's own words: What is "self-realization"? To explain this, we must first understand ... "potential" and "realization". This ... can be traced back to Aristotle: in modern times Hegel ... explained it ... The challenge and development of things are a process from "potential" to "realization"; or, in other words, from possibility to reality. Egg is egg, and chicken is chicken. How can an egg become

3751-406: Is susceptible to the corruption, turning from "the servants of society into the masters of society", a prospect that Marx and Engels warned against; economically, the state's well-meaning attempt to enhance economic growth, while disobeying "objective economic laws", can also be dangerous and counterproductive in a long term. Speaking of possible remedies, Zhou concluded that the origin of alienation

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3872-541: Is the Study of Human'" by Qian Gurong ( 钱谷融 ) also incurred criticism from the party with the accusation that their advocacy of humanity as the center of literature creation is, again, agitating for "the individualism of the bourgeoisie". Criticisms on this line didn't cease to emerge until the end of the Cultural Revolution when the public sphere began to reflect on the suppression of human dignity not only in

3993-661: The Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet in 1928. After joining forces with Mao, Lin became one of Mao's closest supporters. Lin became one of the most senior military field commanders within the Jiangxi Soviet. He commanded the First Army Group, and achieved a degree of power comparable to that of Peng Dehuai , who commanded the Third Army Group. According to Comintern representative Otto Braun , Lin

4114-609: The Kuomintang and took control of the coastal provinces in Southeast China . He ranked third among the Ten Marshals . Zhu De and Peng Dehuai were considered senior to Lin, and Lin ranked directly ahead of He Long and Liu Bocheng . Lin abstained from taking an active role in politics after the war ceased in 1949. He led a section of the government's civil bureaucracy as one of the co-serving Vice Premiers of

4235-593: The Northern Expedition , where he rose from deputy platoon leader to battalion commander within a few months. During this time Lin joined the Communist Party . By 1927 Lin was a colonel. When he was twenty, Lin married a girl from the countryside with the family name "Ong". This marriage was arranged by Lin's parents, and the couple never became close. When Lin left the Kuomintang to become

4356-531: The People's Republic of China from 1954 onwards, becoming First Vice Premier from 1964. Lin became more active in politics when named one of the co-serving Vice Chairmen of the Chinese Communist Party in 1958. He held the three responsibilities of Vice Premier, Vice Chairman and Minister of National Defense from 1959 onwards. To date, Lin is the longest serving Minister of National Defense of

4477-601: The Pingjin Campaign , taking Beijing and Tianjin within a period of two months. Tianjin was taken by force, and on 22 January 1949 General Fu Zuoyi and his army of 400,000 men agreed to surrender Beijing without a battle, and the PLA occupied the city on 31 January. The Pingjin Campaign saw Lin remove a total of approximately 520,000 enemy troops from the enemy's battle lines. Many of those who surrendered later joined

4598-685: The Red Army . Lin's First Army became known for its mobility, and for its ability to execute successful flanking maneuvers. Between 1930 and 1933, Lin's forces captured twice the number of prisoners of war and military equipment as the Third and Fifth Army Groups combined. The successes of Lin's forces are due partially to the division of labour within the Red Army: Lin's forces were more offensive and unorthodox than other groups, allowing Lin to capitalize on other Red Army commanders' successes. During

4719-661: The Yangtze River Crossing Campaign . Lin's armies continued to defeat KMT armies farther south, finally occupying all KMT positions on mainland China by the end of 1949. The last position occupied by Lin's forces was the tropical island of Hainan . Lin Biao was considered one of the Communists' most brilliant generals after the founding of the People's Republic of China, in 1949. Lin was the youngest of

4840-828: The Zunyi Conference in January 1935. Lin may have become privately dissatisfied with Mao's strategy of constant evasion by the end of the Long March, but continued to support Mao publicly. The American journalist Edgar Snow met Lin Biao in the Communist base of Shaanxi in 1936, and wrote about Lin in his book, Red Star Over China . Snow's account focused more on the role of Peng than Lin, evidently having had long conversations with, and devoting two whole chapters to, Peng (more than any other individual apart from Mao). Though he said of Lin: Lin Biao did not present

4961-532: The four basic principles ". Erotica Erotica is art, literature or photography that deals substantively with subject matter that is erotic , sexually stimulating or sexually arousing . Some critics regard pornography as a type of erotica, but many consider it to be different. Erotic art may use any artistic form to depict erotic content, including painting , sculpture , drama , film or music . Erotic literature and erotic photography have become genres in their own right. Erotica also exists in

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5082-441: The " Ten Marshals " named in 1955, a title that recognized Lin's substantial military contributions. Lin Biao continued to suffer from poor health after 1949, and chose to avoid high-profile military and political positions. His status led him to be appointed to a number of high-profile positions throughout most of the 1950s, but these were largely honorary and carried few responsibilities. He generally delegated or neglected many of

5203-588: The 54th division, and severing an important railroad that linked Wei's forces from their ports on the Bohai Sea . Lin continued his advance, defeating all garrisons in western Manchuria or inducing them to defect by late February. On 26 February Lin reorganized his forces as the Northeastern Field Army and began preparations to return and take Siping, whose garrison had been transferred elsewhere by Chen Cheng and never re-strengthened. Lin began

5324-630: The Chinese Reds' military magazines   ... have been republished, studied and criticised in Nanking (Nanjing) military journals, and also in Japan and Soviet Russia. Within a year of Snow's reporting, Lin was seriously wounded. A Red Army soldier shot him by mistake. Lin and Mao generally had a close personal relationship, but some accounts claim that Lin sometimes made disparaging comments about Mao in private, and that Lin's support of Mao

5445-472: The Communist ambush failed, Lin ordered his forces to withdraw and join in the siege of Zhangwu. When Chen did not intervene and the town fell on 28 December, Lin assumed the main part of the campaign was over and he dispersed his forces to rest and attack secondary targets. Chen saw Lin's withdrawal as an opportunity to seize the offensive. He ordered his forces to attack targets in northern Liaoning on 1 January 1948, and on 3 January, Lin successfully encircled

5566-442: The Communists' defense against Chiang's 1933–34 Fifth Encirclement Campaign , Lin advocated a strategy of protracted guerilla warfare, and opposed the positional warfare advocated by Braun and his supporters. Lin believed that the best way to destroy enemy soldiers was not to pursue them or defend strategic points, but to weaken the enemy through feints, ambushes, encirclements, and surprise attacks. Lin's views generally conformed with

5687-624: The Cultural Revolution but also throughout the past few decades of socialist experiments. As Wang Jing argues, "What was remembered was not only personal wounds inflicted upon each individual by the Revolution and the Gang of Four--a cliche that outlived its appeal by the mid-1980s--but also the repressed memory of the early history of Marxism, specifically, the humanist epistemology of the young Marx epitomized in his Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 ". A public intellectual debate, as part of

5808-665: The Cultural Revolution; indeed, all of these were symptoms very similar to those seen in individuals who suffer from schizoid personality disorder. The challenge of Lin's personality problems in conjunction with the turbulent political climate of the Cultural Revolution impacted his overall ability to govern his position. Lin suffered from excessive headaches, and spent much of his free time consulting Chinese medical texts and preparing traditional Chinese medicines for himself. He suffered from insomnia, and often took sleeping pills. He ate simple meals, did not smoke, and did not drink alcohol. As his condition progressed, his fear of water led to

5929-810: The Japanese invasion of Shanxi . In this capacity, Lin orchestrated the ambush at Pingxingguan in September 1937, which was one of the few battlefield successes for the Chinese in the early period of the Second Sino-Japanese War (known in China as the "War of Resistance Against Japan"). In 1938, while he was still leading Chinese forces in Shanxi, Japanese soldiers who had joined the Communists and were serving under Lin's command presented Lin with

6050-468: The Long March they worked well together, Lin specializing in feints, masked strategy, surprises, ambushes, flank attacks, pounces from the rear, and stratagems. Peng met the enemy head-on in frontal assaults and fought with such fury that again and again he wiped them out. Peng did not believe a battle well fought unless he managed to replenish—and more than replenish—any losses by seizure of enemy guns and converting prisoners of war to new and loyal recruits to

6171-612: The Northeast, except for Changchun, Shenyang , and an area connecting the rail line from Beiping to those cities. Following Lin's Winter campaign, Mao wanted him to attack targets farther south, but Lin disagreed because he did not want to leave a strong enemy at his back, and he believed the defeat of a strong city would force Chiang to abandon the Northeast. By 25 May 1948, the Northeastern Field Army had completely encircled Changchun, including its airfield, and for

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6292-565: The PLA. After taking Beijing, the Communists attempted to negotiate for the surrender of the remaining KMT forces. When these negotiations failed, Lin resumed his attacks on the KMT in the southeast. After taking Beijing, Lin's army numbered 1.5 million soldiers. He crossed the Yangtze River in the Spring of 1949 and decisively defeated the defending KMT army stationed in central China during

6413-676: The Paleolithic times, with cave paintings and carvings of female genitalia being a point of immense interest to prehistorians. Ancient Greek and Roman art depicted erotic acts or figures, often using phallic or erotic imagery to convey ideas of fertility. Modern depictions of erotic art are often intertwined with erotic photography , including boudoir photography , and erotic film . Discussions of modern erotic art are also often merged with discussions on pornography . More specifically, erotic photography found its mass-market roots in pornographic magazines . The most iconic of these magazines

6534-472: The Party used the term differently to characterize behaviors they deemed ideologically unacceptable. Humanistic thoughts had long been sidelined by the official discourse in the post-1949 China. As early as in the 1940s, in the Yan'an Rectification Movement , Mao had criticized the idea of what he called "theory of human nature ( 人性论 )" and "love of human ( 人类之爱 )" manifest in the literature by arguing that not until

6655-671: The People's Republic of China who was pivotal in the Communist victory during the Chinese Civil War , especially in Northeast China from 1946 to 1949. Lin was the general who commanded the decisive Liaoshen and Pingjin campaigns , in which he co-led the Manchurian Field Army to victory and led the People's Liberation Army into Beijing. He crossed the Yangtze River in 1949, decisively defeated

6776-402: The People's Republic of China. Lin became instrumental in creating the foundations for Mao Zedong's cult of personality in the early 1960s, and was rewarded for his service in the Cultural Revolution by being named Mao 's designated successor as the sole Vice Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, from 1966 until his death. Lin died on 13 September 1971, when a Hawker Siddeley Trident he

6897-671: The Politburo, initially held serious reservations about China's entry into the Korean War , citing the devastation that would result if the "imperialists" (Americans) detonated an atomic bomb in Korea or China. Lin later declined to lead forces in Korea, citing his ill health. In early October 1950, Peng Dehuai was named commander of the Chinese forces bound for Korea, and Lin went to the Soviet Union for medical treatment. Lin flew to

7018-527: The Red Army. With Mao Zedong, Lin Biao shared the distinction of being one of the few Red commanders never wounded. Engaged on the front in more than a hundred battles, in field command for more than 10 years, exposed to every hardship that his men have known, with a reward of $ 100,000 on his head, he miraculously remained unhurt and in good health. In 1932, Lin Biao was given command of the 1st Red Army Corps, which then numbered about 20,000 rifles. It became

7139-599: The Red Army. Lin disagreed with this position, but was ordered by Mao to draw the KMT into a decisive battle and "not give an inch of land" around Siping, Jilin . On 15 April, Lin orchestrated an ambush and forced KMT forces there to withdraw with heavy casualties. When the local KMT commander, Du Yuming , launched a counterattack on 18 April, Mao ordered the troops there to hold the city indefinitely. The fighting continued until Mao finally allowed Lin to withdraw on 19 May, which Lin did immediately, barely saving his army from encirclement and destruction. Du pursued Lin's forces to

7260-752: The Second Plenum of the Twelfth Party Congress, Deng Xiaoping identified several types of individuals and intellectual trends as undermining the party's objectives. On the left, he targeted the remnant leftist ideas of the Cultural Revolution and those who rose to power by following Lin Biao or the Gang of Four . To appease the conservative factions, he then turned to criticize intellectuals and party members who had focused their attention on questions of humanism. Deng criticized humanism as "un-Marxist", saying it "leads youth astray". Deng emphasized

7381-661: The Songhua River, where they staged guerrilla raids, ambushed relief forces, attacked isolated garrisons, and avoided decisive confrontations with strong units Du sent to defeat them. While they did so, they looted large quantities of supplies and destroyed the infrastructure of the KMT-held territories that they passed through, including bridges, railroads, fortifications, electrical lines, and boats. When Du sent his forces back south, they were ambushed and defeated. When Du requested reinforcements from Chiang Kai-shek, his request

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7502-515: The Twelfth Party Congress held in September 1982, during which Deng Xiaoping stated his intention to continue China's march towards economic modernization and liberalization, a process that he initiated in 1978. Attempting to maintain a balance between the conservative and moderate factions in the Party, Deng tempered his emphasis on continued economic development with a call to build up China's "socialist spiritual civilization" so as to preserve its socialist ideological orientation and protect it against

7623-502: The West as reformists or progressives; and the young humanist Marxists, recognized by a continuously critical voice. All of them, while facing external challenge from the liberals, also experienced internal ideological fragmentation inside the broader Marxist framework, which was in dire need of an "overall guiding ideology", hence the room for the stirring of humanism. The debate can be roughly divided into two lines of thoughts between what

7744-515: The alienation school remains theoretically limited stems from their belief that "de-alienation could be achieved simply by resorting to the objective emancipatory means implemented by a revitalized socialist system and an enlightened Party leadership," while foreign commentators like Jing Wang may suggest that the communist party, which has the monopoly over the materials and course of production, might be "the real problem". The alienation school's approach also faced challenges from David Kelly, though on

7865-424: The anti-pornography activist Andrea Dworkin , "Erotica is simply high-class pornography; better produced, better conceived, better executed, better packaged, designed for a better class of consumer." Feminist writer Gloria Steinem distinguishes erotica from pornography, writing: "Erotica is as different from pornography as love is from rape, as dignity is from humiliation, as partnership is from slavery, as pleasure

7986-662: The army's setbacks he reorganized the army, combining surviving regiments and raising local militia forces to the status of regular units. By the fall of 1947, he had 510,000 soldiers under his command, approximately equal to Nationalist forces in the region. Before Du's replacement, Chen Cheng , could cross north and begin an offensive, Lin moved his army south and began the Autumn Offensive, in which his forces destroyed rail lines and other infrastructure, attacked isolated Nationalist units, and attempted to provoke and ambush strong Nationalist forces. Chen's forces responded to

8107-445: The bluff, lusty face of Peng Dehuai. He was ten years younger, rather slight, oval-faced, dark, handsome. Peng talked with his men. Lin kept his distance. To many he seemed shy and reserved. There are no stories reflecting warmth and affection for his men. His fellow Red Army commanders respected Lin, but when he spoke, it was all business   ... The contrast between Mao's top field commanders could hardly have been more sharp, but on

8228-794: The campaign by withdrawing into their city garrisons. The Communists were not able to provoke a decisive confrontation, and the Autumn Offensive ended in a stalemate. Chen's forces remained static and reactionary, at the end of 1947, Lin led his armies back south in his final Liaoshen Campaign, the Winter Offensive. His initial plan was to repeat the goal of his last offensive, to besiege Jilin City and ambush its relief force, but after reviewing Kuomintang troop dispositions he determined that southern Manchuria would be an easier target. On 15 December, Lin's forces attacked Fakui , Zhangwu , and Xinlitun . Chen sent reinforcements to relieve Fakui, and when

8349-472: The city twice and engaged in street-to-street fighting, but were driven back both times with heavy casualties. By 19 June, Lin's assault troops had become increasingly exhausted, and Lin began to rotate them to prevent them from becoming completely ineffective. On 24 June, Nationalist reinforcements arrived from the south to lift the siege. Lin recognized that he did not have enough manpower left to defeat them, and on 1 July, he ordered his forces to retreat back to

8470-516: The continuity of Marx's works. One source that the alienation school often cited was the Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 , in which Marx developed the theory of alienation , but this work is often regarded by the anti-humanism side as an immature work by Marx, whose theory of alienation later developed into the theory of surplus-value , and is therefore not creditable as Marx's own thoughts. The anti-humanism school thus claimed that there

8591-405: The destructive, counterproductive movements of the past. Zhou Yang's view that the presence of alienation shows merely a malfunction of socialism rather than the inherent shortcoming of the system itself became one of the major targets of critiques from later scholars. In her High Cultural Fever , Wang Jing criticized Zhou's "failure to critique alienation from within". For Wang Jing, the fact that

8712-413: The elimination of class, there can never exist such "all-inclusive love" among human, which is merely an idealistic notion that denies class distinction and speaks for the bourgeoisie. Fifteen years later, starting in another ideological mass campaign that began in 1957 , different critiques that had a humanistic tinge among which most noticeable "On Human Nature ( 论人性 )" by Ba Ren ( 巴人 ) and "On 'Literature

8833-584: The final few years of his life. Following Lin's death, he was officially condemned as a traitor by the Communist Party. Since the late 1970s, Lin and the wife of Mao, Jiang Qing , have been labeled the two major "counter-revolutionary forces" of the Cultural Revolution, receiving official blame from the Chinese government for the worst excesses of that period. Lin Biao was the son of a prosperous merchant family in Huanggang , Hubei . His name at birth

8954-629: The formal political responsibilities that he was assigned, usually citing his poor health. After Lin's injury in 1938, he suffered from ongoing physical and mental health problems. A theory holds that his lifelong health problems may have resulted from the injury. His exact medical condition is not well understood, partially because his medical records have never been publicly released. Dr. Li Zhisui , then one of Mao's personal physicians, believed that Lin suffered from neurasthenia and hypochondria . He became ill whenever he perspired, and suffered from phobias about water, wind, cold, light, and noise. He

9075-437: The former definition, Hu argues, he uses the latter also in a very limited sense, referring only to a society with intense class antagonism, in particular a capitalistic society. Therefore, according to Hu, alienation can never exist in a socialist society, and the growing application of such concept to certain phenomenons in society is mere abuse. In sharp contrast, both Wang and Zhou believe that even though "a socialist society

9196-707: The foundations for the establishment of a new constitution, approved by the National People's Congress in December of the same year. The constitution rejected the ultra-left ideology of the Mao era, provided for greater protection of citizens' dignity and civil liberties, and advocated for an orderly, institutionalized and accountable system of justice. The new constitution carried significant caveats, however; it specified, for instance, that citizens' freedom of privacy and correspondence were protected, except in cases where it

9317-400: The general assault on the city on 13 March, and took the town one day later. The capture of Siping ended Lin's Winter Offensive. The KMT nearly lost all of Manchuria by the end of the campaign and suffered 156,000 casualties, most of which survived as prisoners of war that were indoctrinated and recruited into Lin's forces. By the end of winter 1948 the Kuomintang had lost all of its territory in

9438-468: The idea of the nude female figure from an object of sexual pleasure to a symbol for a woman's sexual liberation. Martha Edelheit was a pioneer of modern women's erotica, flipping the genre on its head by focusing her art on the nude male figure. It was not unusual for a man to be seen as an object of sexual desire in erotic media, but these portrayals were often found in gay pornography , and were often created or published by another man. Edelheit's work as

9559-462: The ideological front" and reiterating elements of the CCP's policies guaranteeing religious freedom. The campaign against spiritual pollution came as a response to an unprecedented public intellectual discussion that heated up in the early 1980s on the question of "alienation" and "humanism". Within the Communist Party, the term "spiritual pollution" did not have a consensus meaning. Different elements of

9680-399: The ideological undertone his view has, Wang came to provide an "important intellectual support" for students who participated in the pro-democracy demonstrations in late 1986 and early 1987. More broadly, for Brugger and Kelly, the party's silencing of the humanist discourse—as represented by the launch of the campaign and the hardline tone set by Deng's and Hu's speeches—embodied the loss of

9801-462: The isolated Nationalist 5th Corps. Its commander, Chen Linda , realized that he was being surrounded and requested reinforcements, but Chen Cheng only responded that he would "allow" Chen Linda to withdraw. The attempted breakout failed, and the 5th Corps was destroyed on 7 January. After this defeat, Chen Cheng was replaced with Wei Lihuang ten days later, but Wei was not able to prevent the Communists from capturing Liaoyang on 6 February, destroying

9922-415: The last chance for a "genuinely critical Marxism" to flourish in China and, in other words, for the Party to construct an orthodox interpretation of Marxism instead. Had the Party adopted and re-packaged it as the official ideology, Brugger and Kelly argue, it could have avoided the occurrence of another "series of abortive mass campaigns" such as the campaign against spiritual pollution, all of which resembled

10043-399: The man being [endorsed] here is a "realistic, social, practical" man—that is, one as a member of a given class in a class society, as opposed to the overgeneralized, abstract men in a Feuerbachian sense whose class distinctions are ignored—Wang's conception of Marxism would stand. Hu Qiaomu, in opposition to this idea, argued instead that "social relations" rather than "abstract human" should be

10164-406: The manner of the social contract theorists but trans-social" . According to his view, they add, "we do not come into the world as persons with God-given rights or as utility-maximizing packages," but "with propensities for self-realization and for the achievement of a society where that self-realization may flower" – "the datum of progress is as teleological as it is deterministic". This interpretation

10285-421: The mid-twentieth century. In the 20th century, a cadre of female artists, authors, and other creatives began to create a new kind of erotica. Women's erotica exists to cater for the sexual gratification of women consuming erotic material. Feminist erotic media often centers female pleasure instead of catering to the male gaze . Feminist erotic art had a boom in the mid-20th century, most iconically transforming

10406-429: The most dreaded section of the Red Army. Chiefly due to Lin's extraordinary talent as a tactician, it destroyed, defeated or outmanoeuvered every Government force sent against it and was never broken in battle   .... Like many able Red commanders, Lin has never been outside China, speaks and reads no language but Chinese. Before the age of 30, however, he has already won recognition beyond Red circles. His articles in

10527-540: The most popular form of which is Japanese hentai . Erotic film is the form of erotica most often seen as interchangeable with pornography due to their similarities in form and function. Erotic literature also dates back to ancient times, though not quite as far. Arguably the most iconic erotic piece of literature, the Kama Sutra is a Sanskrit text largely describing and depicting ideas of sex, sexuality, love, and human emotion. Eroticism in ancient Greece and Rome

10648-471: The most successful commanders in the Red Army during the Long March . Under the direction of Mao and Zhou, the Red Army finally arrived at the remote Communist base of Yan'an , Shaanxi , in December 1936. Lin and Peng Dehuai were generally considered the Red Army's best battlefield commanders, and were not rivals during the Long March . Both of them had supported Mao's rise to de facto leadership at

10769-546: The most well-equipped Communist forces in China. By the time that units from the Kuomintang (Nationalists) were able to arrive in the major cities of Manchuria, Lin's forces were already in firm control of most of the countryside and surrounding areas. By the end of 1945, Lin had 280,000 troops in Manchuria under his command, but according to Kuomintang estimates only 100,000 of these were regular forces with access to adequate equipment. The KMT also estimated that Lin also had access to 100,000 irregular auxiliaries, whose membership

10890-427: The need to combat "spiritual pollution" brought about by liberalization. Although Deng attempted to warn Party comrades against taking extreme measures to rectify problems on the right or the left, almost immediately after the speech, the state-run press began publishing shrill attacks on the bourgeoisie liberal ideas of humanism, and condemning the spiritual pollution that such liberal influenced engendered. Deng Liqun,

11011-485: The news about the defeat at Jinzhou, a KMT army from Yunnan and its commander, Zeng Zesheng , defected and abandoned its position on the outskirts of Changchun on 14 October. This doomed the remaining Nationalist forces in the city, and Zheng Dongguo was forced to surrender two days later. Chiang ordered the 9th army of 110,000 men under General Liao Yaoxiang to travel west and retake Jinzhou, but Lin directed nearly all of his forces to stop them, and they began to encircle

11132-529: The north of the Songhua River. The Communists suffered over 30,000 losses at Siping, and may have suffered a desertion rate of over 20% during the withdrawal, while the Nationalist garrison at Siping fell from 20,000 to slightly over 3,000 before the siege was broken. Lin volunteered to write a self-criticism after the defeat. He also criticized his commander at Siping, Li Tianyou , for demonstrating poor tactics and for lacking "revolutionary spirit". Despite

11253-537: The recent crime wave with the scholarly discourse on humanism . The editors of Red Flag , for instance, declared that "Various kinds of crime are bound to occur where the influence of bourgeois extreme individualism...is still present. [...] If we speak of 'mercy' and 'humanism', it will be a great dereliction of our duty...to the cause of socialism." The campaign sought to root out bourgeois liberalism viewed as having percolated into art, literature, and society, particularly among urban youths. In October 1983, during

11374-410: The relief unit on 21 October. After a week of fighting, the Nationalist army was destroyed on 28 October. Remaining KMT garrisons in the Northeast attempted to break out of the region and flee south, but most were unsuccessful. After Changchun, the only major KMT garrison in the Northeast was Shenyang, where 140,000 KMT soldiers were eventually forced to surrender. By the end of 1948 all of Northeast China

11495-518: The rest of the siege the Nationalist commander, Zheng Dongguo , depended entirely on supplies airdropped into the city. On 19 May, Lin submitted a report to Mao in which he expected heavy casualties. By 20 July the siege was at a stalemate, and Lin deferred to Mao, allowing some of his army to attack Jinzhou farther south, beginning the Liaoshen Campaign . When Chiang airlifted reinforcements to defend Jinzhou, Lin ordered his army to abandon

11616-531: The siege and return to Changchun, but Mao disagreed and overruled him, and Lin was ordered to engage the defenders in a decisive confrontation. On 14 October, the Northeast Field Army began its assault on Jinzhou with 250,000 men and the bulk of Lin's artillery and armor. After nearly 24 hours of fighting, Lin's forces were victorious, suffering 24,000 casualties but capturing the enemy commander, Fan Hanjie , and 90,000 enemy soldiers. After hearing

11737-469: The south bank of the Songhua River , where they halted due to Du's concerns about his army becoming overextended. According to Communist sources, Lin's army lost 15,000 soldiers in the fighting and withdrawal, but Nationalist sources claim that 25,000 soldiers also deserted or surrendered, and that Lin's force of 100,000 irregular auxiliaries suffered from mass desertion during the retreat. On 10 June,

11858-480: The specious dilemma Hu has artificially created—that is, one has to choose between either choose social relations or humans as the "point of departure", which Wang believes can co-exist in a dialectically united manner. Based on Wang's argument, Bill Brugger and David Kelly, in their Chinese Marxism in the Post-Mao Era , interpret it as the idea that "A Marxist view of human nature should be not pre-social in

11979-441: The starting point. For Hu, the clarification from the humanist Marxists regarding human as "practical human" is still invalid, for as long as one needs to explain human as "a practical man who engage in real-life activities", one has to start from one's concrete "social relations" rather than "man" itself. Yet for Wang, not all social relations are "the realization of human essence"—those that are alienated are not. Wang also challenged

12100-451: The state of California upheld that hiring actors to engage in sexual activity for the sake of creating erotic films was not considered pornography, and Miller v. California , in which the idea of erotic work providing serious artistic or literary value was introduced to the legal sphere. A majority of erotica centers women as the object of sexual desire, demonstrated in the sharp rise of popularity of pornographic magazines centering women in

12221-441: The tactics advocated by Mao. After Chiang's forces successfully occupied several strategic locations within the Jiangxi Soviet, in 1934, Lin was one of the first Red Army commanders to publicly advocate the abandonment of the Jiangxi Soviet, but he was opposed by most Red Army commanders, especially Braun and Peng Dehuai. After the Communists finally resolved to abandon their base, later in 1934, Lin continued his position as one of

12342-413: The time of the campaign. The campaign reached a climax in mid November 1983 and largely faded into obscurity into 1984 after intervention from Deng Xiaoping . However, elements of the campaign were rehashed during the " anti-Bourgeois liberalization " campaign of the late 1986 against liberal party general secretary Hu Yaobang . The campaign against spiritual pollution can be said to have its origins in

12463-456: The two forces agreed to a ceasefire brokered by George Marshall , and fighting temporarily ceased. Mao ordered Lin to counterattack that winter, but Lin refused, replying that his forces were exhausted and not logistically prepared to do so. When Du led the majority of his forces to attack Communist forces on the Korean border in January 1947, Lin finally ordered 20,000 of his soldiers to cross

12584-476: The unwanted societal impacts of " bourgeois liberalism ", which had begun trickling in since the policy of opening up began in 1978. During the Party Congress, Hu Yaobang warned that "capitalist forces and other forces hostile to our socialist cause will seek to corrupt us and harm our country," and exhorted Party members to hold true to communist ideals and discipline. The Twelfth Party Congress also laid

12705-517: The victory of the Summer Offensive, Lin's forces gained the initiative and Kuomintang defensive strategy became static and reactionary. Lin ordered his forces to besiege Siping, but they suffered very high casualties and made little progress, partially due to the defenders' strong entrenched position and air support, and due to the attackers' poor artillery support (Lin only had seventy pieces of artillery around Siping). Lin's forces broke into

12826-542: The writings of the humanist intellectuals, by June 1983, fears were growing that criticism of this nature had the potential to severely undermine the political and ideological basis for the Communist Party's legitimacy. In June 1983, premier Zhao Ziyang delivered an address at the opening of the Sixth National People's Congress warning against the growing liberal tendencies in academic and artistic circles, and criticized such trends as being representative of

12947-464: The years before his death, the fiancée of Lin's son reported that Lin became extremely distant and socially and politically detached, even to the extent that he never read books or newspapers. His passivity made him difficult to connect with at any meaningful level: "usually he just sat there, blankly". In Lin's rare periods of activity, he used his time mostly to complain about, and seek treatment for his large variety of medical issues. Lin, like most of

13068-669: Was " Lin Yurong ". Lin's father opened a small handicrafts factory in the mid-late 1910s, but was forced to close the factory due to "heavy taxes imposed by local militarists". After closing the factory, Lin's father worked as a purser aboard a river steamship. Lin entered primary school in 1917, and moved to Shanghai in 1919 to continue his education. As a child, Lin was much more interested in participating in student movements than in pursuing his formal education. Lin transferred to Wuchang Gongjin High School ( 武昌共进中学 ) at 15. Lin joined

13189-403: Was "politically   ... a blank sheet on which Mao could write as he pleased" during this period. After Mao was removed from power in 1932 by his rivals (the 28 Bolsheviks ), Lin frequently attended strategic meetings in Mao's name and openly attacked the plans of Mao's enemies. Within the Jiangxi Soviet, Lin's First Army Group was the best-equipped and arguably most successful force within

13310-467: Was aboard crashed in Öndörkhaan in Mongolia . The exact events of this " Lin Biao incident " have been a source of speculation ever since. The Chinese government's official explanation is that Lin and his family attempted to flee following a botched coup against Mao. Others have argued that they fled out of fear they would be purged, as Lin's relationship with other Communist Party leaders had soured in

13431-406: Was accompanied by his wife, Liu Ximin, but their relationship deteriorated in Moscow, and Lin eventually returned to Yan'an without her. While in Moscow, Lin became infatuated with Zhou Enlai's adopted daughter, Sun Weishi , who was studying in Moscow from 1938 to 1946. Before returning to China, in 1942, Lin proposed to Sun and promised to divorce his wife, from whom Lin had become estranged. Sun

13552-406: Was drawn mainly from unemployed factory workers. Lin avoided decisive confrontations throughout 1945, and he was able to preserve the strength of his army despite criticism from his peers in the Party and the PLA. For the sake of bargaining with the Kuomintang in peace negotiations in 1946, Mao ordered Lin to assemble his army to take and defend key cities, which was against the previous strategy of

13673-463: Was eight years older than Lin. Lin had no contact with Zhou after their time in Whampoa, until they met again in Yan'an in the late 1930s. Lin's relationship with Zhou was never especially close, but they rarely opposed each other directly. After graduating from Whampoa in 1926, Lin was assigned to a regiment commanded by Ye Ting . Less than a year after graduating from Whampoa, he was assigned to

13794-420: Was elected the sixth-ranking Central Committee member in 1945 based on his earlier battlefield reputation. After the Japanese surrender, the Communists moved large numbers of troops to Manchuria (Northeast China), and Lin Biao relocated to Manchuria to command the new "Communist Northeast Military District". The Soviets transferred captured Japanese military equipment to the Communists, making Lin's army one of

13915-462: Was largely for the pursuit of power. After arriving in Yan'an, Lin became the principal of the newly founded Chinese People's Anti-Japanese Military and Political University . In 1937, Lin married one of the students there, a girl named Liu Ximin, who had earned the nickname "University Flower". In August 1937, Lin was named commander-in-chief of the 115th Division of the Communist 8th Route Army and ordered to aid Yan Xishan 's forces in repelling

14036-416: Was not able to accept Lin's proposal, but promised to consider marrying Lin after completing her studies. Lin divorced Liu Ximin after returning to China, and married another woman, Ye Qun , in 1943. The relationship between Sun and Ye was notably bad. After returning to Yan'an, Lin was involved in troop training and indoctrination assignments. Lin was absent for most of the fighting during World War II, but

14157-594: Was not contained to only visual art, as poets such as the Greek Sappho and the Roman Catullus and Ovid wrote erotic verse and lyrical poems. Modern erotic literature, often called 'smut', is quite popular, especially among women. In the 21st century, fan fiction erotica has gained popularity. Stories on online websites like Archive of Our Own and FanFiction.Net account for a large percentage of modern erotic fan fiction literature. The topic of sex

14278-499: Was of interest to the state. Following the revisions to the constitution at the end of 1982, critical academic discourse grew. Scholars called for greater respect for human dignity and freedoms, and for a reconciliation of socialist and humanist ideals. By the spring of 1983, calls for a more humanist society were reaching a crescendo, with scholars very openly criticizing the excesses of the socialist dictatorship. Although some Chinese officials, including Deng Liqun , saw some value in

14399-426: Was rejected. On 8 April, Lin moved his headquarters from Harbin to Shuangcheng in order to be closer to the front. On 5 May, he held a conference with his subordinates and announced that his armies would change tactics, engage in a large-scale counterattack, and seek to defeat Du's forces in a decisive battle. On 8 May, Lin launched the first of his "three great campaigns", the Summer Offensive, intending to engage

14520-543: Was said to become nervous at the sight of rivers and oceans in traditional Chinese paintings, and suffered from diarrhea, which could be triggered by the sound of running water. Li's account of Lin's condition is notably different from the official Chinese version. In another study, Lin is described as having symptoms similar to those seen in patients of schizoid personality disorder . Lin's personality traits including his aloofness, lack of interest in social relationships, secretiveness, and emotional coldness he exhibited during

14641-521: Was under Communist control. After taking control of the Manchurian provinces, Lin then swept into North China . Forces under Lin were responsible for winning two of the three major military victories responsible for the defeat of the Kuomintang. Lin suffered from ongoing periods of serious illness throughout the campaign. Following the victory in Manchuria, Lin commanded over a million soldiers, encircling Chiang's main forces in northern China during

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