Misplaced Pages

#659340

63-501: Antoine Babuty Desgodetz' s (1653–1728) publication Les edifices antiques de Rome dessinés et mesurés très exactement (Paris 1682) provided detailed engravings of the monuments and antiquities of Rome to serve French artists and architects. Desgodetz had been sent to Rome in an official capacity, part of French architectural and artistic policy, and the engravings for his publication were supervised by Jean-Baptiste Colbert , according to Desgodetz' introduction. The young architect with

126-442: A Jesuit college, working for a Parisian banker; as well as working for the father of Jean Chapelain . Before the age of 20, Colbert had a post in the war office, a position generally attributed to the marriage of an uncle to the sister of Secretary of War Michel Le Tellier . Colbert spent some time as an inspector of troops, eventually becoming the personal secretary of Le Tellier. In 1647, through unknown means, Colbert acquired

189-486: A ceremonial sword ( l'épée ). The members bear the cost of their uniforms themselves. The robes cost around $ 50,000, and Amin Maalouf said that his induction cost him some $ 230,000 overall. The swords can be particularly expensive as they are individually designed. Some new members have had funds for them raised by committees. The Académie is France's official authority on the usages, vocabulary, and grammar of

252-643: A chairperson and chief representative of the Académie. The two other officers, a Director and a Chancellor, are elected for three-month terms. The most senior member, by date of election, is the Dean of the Académie. New members are elected by the Académie itself; the original members were appointed. When a seat becomes vacant, a person may apply to the Secretary if they wish to become a candidate. Alternatively, existing members may nominate other candidates. A candidate

315-739: A copy of Les edifices antiques de Rome could determine the precise proportions of many Roman structures, such as the portico of the Pantheon , or the Temple of Vesta, Tivoli , that were considered the best models, a practice that had the effect of standardizing the details of academic architecture in France. His Edifices antiques was reissued in Paris, 1729 and again in 1779, when it proved as helpful to Neoclassical architects as it had been to classicizing Late Baroque ones. The young Robert Adam toyed with

378-522: A favorable balance of trade and increase colonial holdings . As there was slavery in the colonies, in 1682, Colbert commissioned the beginning of a project that would become the Code Noir in 1685, two years after his death. In addition, he founded France's merchant navy ( marine marchande ), becoming Secretary of State of the Navy in 1669. His effective market reforms included the foundation of

441-807: A literary work), the grand prix du roman (for a novel), the Grand prix de poésie de l'Académie française (for poetry), the Grand prix de philosophie (for a philosophical work), the Grand prix du cinéma (for film), and the grand prix Gobert (for a work on French history). The Académie Française intervened in June 2008 to oppose the French Government's proposal to constitutionally offer recognition and protection to regional languages ( Flemish , Alsatian , Basque , Breton , Catalan , Corsican , Occitan , Gascon , and Arpitan ). The current members of

504-465: A member is known as l'habit vert , or green clothing. The habit vert , worn at the Académie's formal ceremonies, was first adopted during Napoleon Bonaparte's reorganization of the Institut de France . It consists of a long black coat and black-feathered bicorne , both richly embroidered with green leafy motifs, together with black trousers or skirt. Further, members other than clergy carry

567-462: A member of the Académie française ; and proposed one very characteristic rule with the intention of expediting the great Dictionary , in which he had a great interest: no one could count as present at any meeting unless he arrived before the hour of commencement and remained till the hour for leaving. In 1673 Colbert presided over the first exhibition of the works of living painters; and he enriched

630-572: A newly created position, in the aftermath of the arrest of Nicolas Fouquet for embezzlement, an event that led to the abolishment of the office of Superintendent of Finances . He worked to develop the domestic economy by raising tariffs and encouraging major public works projects, as well as to ensure that the French East India Company had access to foreign markets, so that they could always obtain coffee , cotton , dyewoods , fur , pepper , and sugar . He acted to create

693-458: A patron, however highly ranked, but had to agree in this case for reasons of diplomacy between France and the Holy See . While in France, Bernini also sculpted a marble portrait bust of Louis XIV (Versailles palace). However the relations between the two strong-willed men, Colbert and Bernini, proved melodramatically stormy. Bernini's Louvre design was ultimately rejected. Colbert himself became

SECTION 10

#1732772377660

756-568: A policy focusing on the unification of French trade. His régime improved roads and canals. Pierre Paul Riquet (1604–1680) planned and constructed the Canal du Midi under Colbert's patronage. To encourage overseas trade with the Levant , Senegal , Guinea and other places, Colbert granted privileges to companies, but, like the noted French East India Company , all proved unsuccessful. Colbert took much interest in art and literature. He possessed

819-657: A remarkably fine private library, which he delighted to fill with valuable manuscripts from every part of Europe and the Near East where France had placed a consul. He employed Pierre de Carcavi and Étienne Baluze as librarians. Colbert's grandson sold the manuscript collection in 1732 to the Bibliothèque Royale . Colbert founded a number of institutions: He reorganised the Academy of Painting and Sculpture which Mazarin had established. Wishing to increase

882-597: A single body called the Institut de France . Napoleon Bonaparte , as First Consul , decided to restore the former academies, but only as "classes" or divisions of the Institut de France . The second class of the Institut was responsible for the French language, and corresponded to the former Académie Française . When King Louis XVIII came to the throne in 1816, each class regained the title of "Académie"; accordingly,

945-421: A speech to the Académie, which includes a eulogy for the member being replaced. This is followed by a speech made by one of the members. Eight days thereafter, a public reception is held, during which the new member makes a speech thanking their colleagues for their election. On one occasion, one newly installed member, Georges de Porto-Riche , was not accorded a reception, as the eulogy he made of his predecessor

1008-430: A wide variety of fields. The authorities established new industries, protected inventors, invited in workmen from foreign countries, and prohibited French workmen from emigrating. To maintain the character of French goods in foreign markets as well as to afford a guarantee to the domestic consumer, Colbert had the quality and quantity of each article fixed by law, punishing breaches of the regulations by public exposure of

1071-548: Is assigned a separate number. Candidates make their applications for a specific seat, not to the Académie in general: if several seats are vacant, a candidate may apply separately for each. Since a newly elected member is required to eulogize their predecessor in the installation ceremony, it is not uncommon that potential candidates refuse to apply for particular seats because they dislike the predecessors. Members are known as "les immortels" ("the Immortals") in reference to

1134-434: Is continuing work on the ninth edition, of which the first volume ( A to Enzyme ) appeared in 1992, Éocène to Mappemonde was published in 2000, and Maquereau to Quotité in 2011. In 1778, the Académie attempted to compile a "historical dictionary" of the French language; this idea was later abandoned, the work never progressing past the letter  A . As the use of English terms by media increased over

1197-492: Is elected by a majority of votes from voting members. A quorum is twenty members. If no candidate receives an absolute majority, another election must be performed at a later date. The election is valid only if the protector of the Académie, the President of France, grants their approval. The President's approbation is only a formality. The new member is then installed at a meeting of the Académie. The new member must deliver

1260-449: Is not necessary to be a member of the literary profession to become a member. The Académie has included numerous politicians, lawyers, scientists, historians, philosophers, and senior Roman Catholic clergymen. Five French heads of state have been members – Adolphe Thiers , Raymond Poincaré , Paul Deschanel , Philippe Pétain , and Valéry Giscard d'Estaing – and one foreign head of state, the poet Léopold Sédar Senghor of Senegal , who

1323-483: The Manufacture royale de glaces de miroirs in 1665 to supplant the importation of Venetian glass , which was forbidden in 1672 as soon as the national glass manufacturing industry was on sound footing. Also encouraging the technical expertise of Flemish cloth manufacturing in France, he founded royal tapestry works at Gobelins and supported those at Beauvais . He issued more than 150 edicts to regulate

SECTION 20

#1732772377660

1386-524: The French language . The Académie was officially established in 1635 by Cardinal Richelieu , the chief minister to King Louis XIII . Suppressed in 1793 during the French Revolution , it was restored as a division of the Institut de France in 1803 by Napoleon Bonaparte . It is the oldest of the five académies of the institute. The body has the duty of acting as an official authority on

1449-564: The Louvre with hundreds of pictures and statues. He gave many pensions to men of letters, among whom we find Molière , Corneille , Racine , Boileau , P D Huet (1630–1721) and Antoine Varillas (1626–1696); and even foreigners, as Huygens , Carlo Roberto Dati the Dellacruscan . Evidence exists to show that by this munificence he hoped to draw out praises of his sovereign and himself; but this motive certainly does not account for all

1512-455: The corporation system, each industry remained in the hands of certain privileged bourgeois ; while the lower classes found opportunities of advancement closed. He did, however, wisely consult the interests of internal commerce. Unable to abolish the duties on the passage of goods from province to province , he did what he could to induce the provinces to equalize them. Currency exchange rates still remained between these provinces despite

1575-479: The economy back from the brink of bankruptcy . Nevertheless, despite his best efforts, France grew increasingly impoverished because of the King's excessive spending on wars. Having introduced a measure of order and economy into the workings of the government, Colbert called for the enrichment of the country by means of commerce. Through Colbert's dirigiste policies, France fostered manufacturing enterprises in

1638-604: The guilds . The Académie des sciences was founded in 1666 at his suggestion; he was a member of the Académie française from 1 March 1667 to his death, where he occupied the 24th seat, to which Jean de La Fontaine was later elected. His son Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Marquis de Seignelay (1651–1690), succeeded him as Navy Secretary. Colbert's father and grandfather were merchants in his birthplace of Reims , France . He claimed to have Scottish ancestry. A widespread (but unconfirmed) belief exists that he spent his early youth at

1701-552: The Académie's motto , À l'immortalité ("To Immortality"), which is inscribed on the official seal of the charter granted by Cardinal Richelieu. One of the immortels is chosen by their colleagues to be the Académie's Perpetual Secretary. The Secretary is called "Perpetual", as though the holder serves for life, but holds the ability to resign; they may thereafter be styled as "Honorary Perpetual Secretary", with three post- World War II Perpetual Secretaries having previously resigned due to old age. The Perpetual Secretary acts as

1764-559: The Académie, either because their candidacies were rejected, because they were never candidates, or because they died before appropriate vacancies arose. Notable French authors who never became academicians include Jean-Jacques Rousseau , Jean-Paul Sartre , Joseph de Maistre , Honoré de Balzac , René Descartes , Denis Diderot , Romain Rolland , Charles Baudelaire , Gustave Flaubert , Molière , Marcel Proust , Jules Verne , Théophile Gautier , and Émile Zola . The official uniform of

1827-599: The French head of state has always served as the Académie's protector. From 1672 to 1805, the official meetings of the Académie were in the Louvre ; since 1805, the Académie Française has met in the Collège des Quatre-Nations (known now as the Palais de l'Institut). The remaining academies of the Institut de France also meet in the Palais de l'Institut. The Académie Française has forty seats, each of which

1890-511: The French language since the 1700s, and has criticized the view that anglicisms present an "invasion" on the French language. It distinguishes anglicisms into three categories: some that are useful to the French language and introduced vocabulary which did not have a French equivalent at the time (the Académie cites the word " confortable " as an example, from the English "comfortable"); others that are detrimental and only establish more confusion as

1953-539: The French language. The Académie publishes a dictionary of the French language, known as the Dictionnaire de l'Académie française , which is regarded as official in France. A special commission composed of several (but not all) of the members of the Académie compiles the work. The Académie has published thirteen editions of the dictionary, of which three were preliminary, eight were complete, and two were supplements for specialised words. These are: The Académie

Antoine Desgodetz - Misplaced Pages Continue

2016-440: The Navy ; he also gained appointments as minister of commerce , of the colonies , and of the palace . In short, Colbert acquired power in every department except that of war. A great financial and fiscal reform now claimed all his energies. Not only the nobility, but many others who had no legal claim to exemption, paid no taxes; the bulk of the burden fell on the rural poor. Supported by the young king Louis XIV , Colbert aimed

2079-631: The already dominant position of the Tuscan dialect of Florence as the model for Italian ; the Florentine academy had published its Vocabolario in 1612. During the French Revolution , the National Convention suppressed all royal academies, including the Académie Française . In 1792, the election of new members to replace those who died was prohibited; in 1793, the academies were themselves abolished. They were all replaced in 1795 by

2142-529: The care and diligence possible, to give exact rules to our language, to render it capable of treating the arts and sciences". The Académie Française has remained responsible for the regulation of French grammar, spelling, and literature. Richelieu's model, the first academy devoted to eliminating the "impurities" of a language, was the Accademia della Crusca , founded in Florence in 1582, which formalized

2205-475: The chief minister of France, made himself protector of the group, and in anticipation of the formal creation of the academy, new members were appointed in 1634. On 22 February 1635, at Richelieu's urging, King Louis XIII granted letters patent formally establishing the council; according to the letters patent registered at the Parlement de Paris on 10 July 1637, the Académie Française was "to labor with all

2268-514: The confiscated goods of an uncle, Pussort. In 1648, he and his wife Marie Charron, received 40,000 crowns from an unknown source; and in 1649 Colbert became the councilor of state, i.e. a political minister. In 1657, he purchased the Barony of Seignelay . Colbert was recommended to King Louis XIV by Mazarin. While Cardinal Mazarin was in exile, Louis's trust in Colbert grew. In 1652 Colbert

2331-411: The delinquent and destruction of the goods concerned, and, on the third offense, by the pillory . Colbert prohibited the production of certain products that might have suited consumers, and the time-consuming supervision he imposed on commercial enterprises may have acted as a hindrance to improvement. Other parts of Colbert's schemes have met with less equivocal condemnation. By his firm maintenance of

2394-625: The end of World War II : Philippe Pétain , Abel Bonnard , Abel Hermant , and Charles Maurras were all excluded for their association with the Vichy regime . In total, 20 members have been expelled from the Académie. There have been a total of 742 immortels , of whom eleven have been women; Marguerite Yourcenar was the first woman to be elected, in 1980, but there have been 25 unsuccessful female candidacies, dating from 1874. Individuals who are not citizens of France may be, and have been, elected. Moreover, although most academicians are writers, it

2457-411: The first blow at the man accused of being the greatest of the royal embezzlers, the superintendent Nicolas Fouquet . Fouquet's fall secured Colbert's own advancement. After the abolition of the office of superintendent and of many other offices dependent upon it, control of France's finances fell to a royal council. The sovereign functioned as its president, but Colbert, though only an intendant for

2520-503: The first four years, operated as its ruling spirit, enjoying as he did king's favor and confidence. His ruthlessness in the execution of his functions may have set a dangerous precedent, but it probably struck him necessary in that the council could not defer to individual interests. This way of administering his policies was particularly in evidence in his preparation and enforcement of his forestry ordinance of 1669 . When he had severely punished guilty officials, he turned his attention to

2583-429: The government's fraudulent creditors. Here he had a simple way of operating. He repudiated some of the public loans and reduced the interest rate on others. The amount of the reduction was initially his own decision but ultimately that of a council he established to examine all claims against the state. Much more serious difficulties met his attempts to introduce equality in taxation among the various classes. Cutting back

Antoine Desgodetz - Misplaced Pages Continue

2646-486: The idea of producing a revised version of Desgodetz before he hit on the idea of striking into fresh territory with measured engravings of the ruins of Diocletian's palace at Spalatro ( Split, Croatia ). Claude Perrault 's view that the architectural norms that had formerly been presented as divinely inspired, authoritative and derived from nature, were in fact arbitrary, with a social origin under constraints of individual situations, "employed empirical observation instead of

2709-475: The language; it is tasked with publishing an official dictionary of the language. The Académie comprises forty members, known as les immortels ("the immortals"). New members are elected by the members of the Académie itself . Academicians normally hold office for life, but they may resign or be dismissed for misconduct. Philippe Pétain , named Marshal of France after the Battle of Verdun of World War I ,

2772-598: The merchant classes. When the king resolved to make all France Roman Catholic and revoked the Edict of Nantes , he followed him and urged his subordinates to do all they could to promote conversions . Colbert had nine children, including : His policies inspired those of Alexander Hamilton , the first treasury secretary of the United States. Six ships of the French Navy bore his name: In literature,

2835-485: The modernization of the French orthography , has sometimes been criticized by many linguists for allegedly behaving in an overly conservative manner. For instance, in 1997, Lionel Jospin 's government began using the feminine noun " la ministre " to refer to a female minister, following the official practice of Canada , Belgium and Switzerland and a frequent, though until then unofficial, practice in France. The Académie insisted, in accordance with French grammar rules on

2898-446: The number of the privileged proved impossible, but Colbert firmly resisted false claims for exemption and lightened direct taxation by increasing indirect taxes, from which the privileged could not escape. At the same time, he undertook improvements to the way taxes were collected. Colbert's relentless hard work and thrift made him an esteemed minister. He achieved a reputation for improving the state of French manufacturing and bringing

2961-504: The opinion of authorities. Essential to his proof were the measurements taken by Desgodetz in Rome, clearly indicating the disparity in the proportions of the great monuments themselves." Les edifices antiques... was reproduced in 1972 (Portland, Oregon : Collegium Graphicum). Jean-Baptiste Colbert A native of Reims , he was appointed Intendant of Finances on 4 May 1661. Colbert took over as Controller-General of Finances ,

3024-621: The original meaning of the word is distorted in translation; and others still that are useless or avoidable, a category of anglicisms used by "snobs" who use words from an English provenance to demarcate themselves from society and appear "in vogue". For the last category of anglicisms, the Académie writes that those words are typically short-lived in French parlance. The Académie Française has informed government officials to stop using English gaming terms like "e-sports", it should be "jeu video de competition". Likewise "streamer" should be "joueur-animateur en direct". The Académie, despite working on

3087-484: The power struggle between Colbert and Fouquet is one of the main plotlines of Alexandre Dumas, père 's novel The Vicomte of Bragelonne , the second sequel to The Three Musketeers . Dumas paints Colbert as an uncouth and ruthless schemer who stops at little, in contrast to the more refined Fouquet, counselled by Aramis , but also as a visionary patriot. Colbert's statue stands outside the Assemblée nationale . It

3150-492: The prestige of the image of France and the French royal family, Colbert played an active role in bringing the great Italian architect-sculptor, Gian Lorenzo Bernini , to Paris (June–October 1665), in order to design the new East Facade of the Louvre. This was a striking coup and caused a sensation because Bernini, the most famous artist in all of Europe, had never before (or after) consented to travel any significant distance to meet

3213-416: The prizes were created during the twentieth century, and only two prizes were awarded before 1780. In total, the Académie awards more than sixty prizes, most of them annually. The most important prize is the Grand prix de la francophonie , which was instituted in 1986, and is funded by the governments of France, Canada, Monaco, and Morocco. Other important prizes include the Grand prix de littérature (for

SECTION 50

#1732772377660

3276-523: The proposal that suggested seizing part of the wealth of the clergy . In his hatred of idleness, he ventured to suppress no less than seventeen fêtes , and he had a project for reducing the number of persons devoted to clerical and monastic life by increasing the age for taking vows . He showed himself initially unwilling to interfere with heresy , for he realised the commercial value of the Huguenots (French Protestants), who were well represented among

3339-489: The second class of the Institut became the Académie Française . Since 1816, the existence of the Académie Française has been uninterrupted. The President of France is the "protector" or patron of the Académie. Cardinal Richelieu originally adopted this role; upon his death in 1642, Pierre Séguier , the Chancellor of France , succeeded him. King Louis XIV adopted the function when Séguier died in 1672; since then,

3402-446: The splendid, if in some cases specious, services that he rendered to literature, science and art. Colbert worked incessantly hard until his final hours. Work was his religion; he once pondered whether it was better to rise early and work or retire very late and work. He concluded that rising early and retiring late would be the ideal combination. Towards the end of his life he suffered from stomach aches, which caused him much distress. He

3465-579: The taxes paid by the people reached the King. The paper also contained an attack on Nicolas Fouquet . The postmaster of Paris, a spy of Fouquet's, read the letter, leading to a dispute which Mazarin attempted to suppress. In 1661, Mazarin died and Colbert "made sure of the King's favor" by revealing the location of some of Mazarin's hidden wealth. In January 1664 Colbert became the Superintendent of buildings ; in 1665 he became Controller-General of Finances ; in 1669, he became Secretary of State of

3528-474: The traditional use of the masculine noun, on the use of " le ministre " for a minister of either gender. In 2017, 77 linguists retaliated with an opinion column to denounce the "incompetence and anachronism of the Académie". Use of either form remains highly controversial. The Académie Française is responsible for awarding several different prizes in various fields (including literature, painting, poetry, theatre, cinema, history, and translation). Almost all of

3591-543: The years, the Académie has tried to prevent the Anglicization of the French language. For example, the Académie has recommended the avoidance of loanwords from modern English (such as walkman , computer , software and e-mail ), in favour of neologisms, i.e. newly coined French words derived from existing ones ( baladeur , ordinateur , logiciel , and courriel respectively). The Académie has also noted that anglicisms have been present in

3654-432: Was also the first African elected, in 1983. Other famous members include Voltaire ; Montesquieu ; Victor Hugo ; Alexandre Dumas, fils ; Émile Littré ; Louis Pasteur ; Louis de Broglie ; and Henri Poincaré . Many notable French writers have not become members of the Académie Française . In 1855, the writer Arsène Houssaye devised the expression "forty-first seat" for deserving individuals who were never elected to

3717-483: Was asked to manage the affairs of the Cardinal while he was away. This new responsibility would detach Colbert from his other responsibility as commissaire des guerres . Although Colbert was not a supporter of Mazarin in principle, he would defend the cardinal's interests with unflagging devotion. Colbert's earliest recorded attempt at tax reform came in the form of a mémoire to Mazarin, showing that less than half of

3780-406: Was considered unsatisfactory, and he refused to rewrite it. Georges Clemenceau refused to be received, as he feared being received by his enemy, Raymond Poincaré . Members remain in the Académie for life. The council may dismiss an academician for grave misconduct. The first dismissal occurred in 1638, when Auger de Moléon de Granier was expelled for theft. The most recent dismissals occurred at

3843-596: Was elected to the Académie in 1931 and, after his governorship of Vichy France in World War II , was forced to resign his seat in 1945. The Académie had its origins in an informal literary group deriving from the salons held at the Hôtel de Rambouillet during the late 1620s and early 1630s. The group began meeting at Valentin Conrart 's house, seeking informality. There were then nine members. Cardinal Richelieu ,

SECTION 60

#1732772377660

3906-479: Was reduced to eating moist bread dipped in chicken broth for his meals. By 64 he was bedridden and died seven days after his birthday. The surgeons who examined him found that he had been suffering from kidney stones . A huge stone was found in his urinary tract , which would explain his pain. Colbert played a subordinate role in the struggle between the king and the papacy over royal rights concerning vacant bishoprics , and he seems to have sympathised with

3969-633: Was vandalized in 2020 due to Colbert's part in drafting the Code noir . The main building of the Ministry of the Economy and Finance building , completed in 1989, is named after him. Acad%C3%A9mie fran%C3%A7aise The Académie Française ( French pronunciation: [akademi fʁɑ̃sɛːz] ), also known as the French Academy , is the principal French council for matters pertaining to

#659340