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99-786: Androgyny is the possession of both masculine and feminine characteristics. Androgyny may be expressed with regard to biological sex or gender expression . When androgyny refers to mixed biological sex characteristics in humans, it often refers to conditions in which characteristics of both sexes are clearly expressed in a single individual, with fully developed sexual organs of both sexes, also called hermaphrodites. It also refers to intersex people, who are born with congenital variations that complicate assigning their sex at birth , but do not have fully developed sexual organs of both sexes. The term derives from Ancient Greek : ἀνδρόγυνος , from ἀνήρ , stem ἀνδρ - ( anér, andro- , meaning man) and γυνή ( gunē, gyné , meaning woman) through
198-491: A terminal illness because of their reluctance to see a doctor. Reasons cited for not seeing a physician include fear, denial, embarrassment, a dislike of situations out of their control and the belief that visiting a doctor is not worth the time or cost. Studies of men in North America and Europe show that men who consume alcoholic drinks often do so in order to fulfill certain social expectations of manliness. While
297-425: A "high level of generality" in "broad surveys of cultural norms". The scholarship was aware of contemporary societal changes aiming to understand and evolve (or liberate) the male role in response to feminism. John Tosh calls for a return to this aim for the history of masculinity to be useful, academically and in the public sphere. Two concerns over the study of the history of masculinity are that it would stabilize
396-540: A 2017 study utilized neural networks to see whether artificial intelligence would be able to differentiate accurately between more than 35,000 images of gay and straight faces. The results showed that the "classifier could correctly distinguish between gay and heterosexual men in 81% of cases, and in 71% of cases for women." Supporting the idea that men's faces are perceived as more feminine, analysis suggests that gay men have more "gender-atypical facial morphology, expression and grooming styles". Gay men have been presented in
495-602: A character that was a symbol of sexual ambiguity when he launched the album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and Spiders from Mars . Marc Bolan , the other pioneer of glam rock , performed on the BBC's Top of the Pops in 1971 wearing glitter and satins, with The Independent stating his appearance "permitted a generation of teeny-boppers to begin playing with the idea of androgyny". The 1973 West End musical The Rocky Horror Show also depicted sexual fluidity. Continuing into
594-429: A chic bob, which gave women an androgynous look. Coco Chanel, who had a love for wearing trousers herself, created trouser designs for women such as beach pajamas and horse-riding attire. During the 1930s, glamorous actresses such as Marlene Dietrich fascinated and shocked many with their strong desire to wear trousers and adopt the androgynous style. Dietrich is remembered as one of the first actresses to wear trousers in
693-443: A culture or relationship is androgynous is to say that it lacks rigid gender roles , or has blurred lines between gender roles. The word genderqueer is often used by androgynous individuals to refer to themselves, but the terms genderqueer and androgynous are neither equivalent nor interchangeable. Genderqueer , by virtue of its ties with queer culture, carries sociopolitical connotations that androgyny does not carry. For
792-625: A hierarchy of masculinity exists largely as a dichotomy of homosexual and heterosexual males: "Our society uses the male heterosexual-homosexual dichotomy as a central symbol for all the rankings of masculinity, for the division on any grounds between males who are "real men" and have power, and males who are not". Michael Kimmel adds that the trope "You're so gay" indicates a lack of masculinity, rather than homosexual orientation. According to Pleck, to avoid male oppression of women, themselves and other men, patriarchal structures, institutions and discourse must be eliminated from Western society. In
891-511: A less humorous way in the evening as opposed to the daytime, whereas females were more likely to be rated in a less humorous way in the daytime as opposed to the evening. Reeser argues that although the military has a vested interest in constructing and promoting a specific form of masculinity, it does not create it. Facial hair is linked to masculinity through language, in stories about boys becoming men when they begin to shave. Some social scientists conceptualize masculinity (and femininity) as
990-676: A male form of dress, frowned upon for women. However, during the 19th century, female spies were introduced and Vivandières wore a certain uniform with a dress over trousers. Women activists during that time would also decide to wear trousers, for example Luisa Capetillo , a women's rights activist and the first woman in Puerto Rico to wear trousers in public. In the 20th century, starting around World War I traditional gender roles blurred and fashion pioneers such as Paul Poiret and Coco Chanel introduced trousers to women's fashion. The "flapper style" for women of this era included trousers and
1089-407: A man overcomes an obstacle in a group, working or playing hard (construction workers, farm workers or cowboys ). Those involving play have central themes of mastery (of nature or each other), risk and adventure: fishing, camping, playing sports or socializing in bars . There is usually an element of danger and a focus on movement and speed (watching fast cars or driving fast). The bar is a setting for
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#17327809734761188-905: A man we most value and then cultivate those parts of our selves can lead to a healthier and less distorted sense of our own masculinity. A study by the Center for Theoretical Study at Charles University in Prague and the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic found significant differences in shape among the faces of 66 heterosexual and gay men, with gay men having more "stereotypically masculine" features ("undermin[ing] stereotypical notions of gay men as more feminine looking.") However, other studies with larger sample sizes have found that homosexual men were seen as significantly more feminine and less masculine than those of heterosexual men Furthermore,
1287-491: A number of philosophical and sociological theories). People regardless of biological sex may exhibit masculine traits and behavior. Those exhibiting both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous , and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification. The concept of masculinity varies historically and culturally. Since what constitutes masculinity has varied by time and place, according to Raewyn Connell , it
1386-420: A perfect merging of the sexes that predated the current corrupted world and/or was the utopia of the next – is also important in some strains of Rosicrucianism and in philosophical traditions such as Swedenborgianism and Theosophy . Twentieth century architect Claude Fayette Bragdon expressed the concept mathematically as a magic square , using it as building block in many of his most noted buildings . In
1485-512: A performance. Gender performances may not necessarily be intentional and people may not even be aware of the extent to which they are performing gender, as one outcome of lifelong gender socialization is the feeling that one's gender is "natural" or biologically-ordained. Masculine performance varies over the life course, but also from one context to another. For instance, the sports world may elicit more traditionally normative masculinities in participants than would other settings. Men who exhibit
1584-517: A personal basis rather than on the basis of masculinity, femininity, or androgyny. In agenderism , the division of people into women and men (in the psychical sense), is considered erroneous and artificial. Agendered individuals are those who reject gender labeling in conception of self-identity and other matters. They see their subjectivity through the term person instead of woman or man . According to E. O. Wright, genderless people can have traits, behaviors and dispositions that correspond to what
1683-576: A plethora of studies, are constructed in oppressive ways (Thorne 1993). This is symptomatic of the fact that hegemonic masculinity is relational, which means that it is constructed in relation to and against an Other (emphasized femininity, marginalized and subordinated masculinities). In addition to describing forceful articulations of violent masculine identities, hegemonic masculinity has also been used to describe implicit, indirect, or coercive forms of gendered socialization, enacted through video games, fashion, humor, and so on. Researchers have argued that
1782-551: A population of undergrad students. Similar to the BSRI, the PAQ labeled androgynous individuals as people who ranked highly in both the areas of masculinity and femininity. However, Spence and Helmreich considered androgyny to be a descriptor of high levels of masculinity and femininity as opposed to a category in and of itself. Historically, the word androgynous was applied to humans with a mixture of male and female sex characteristics, and
1881-544: A premiere. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, the women's liberation movement is likely to have contributed to ideas and influenced fashion designers, such as Yves Saint Laurent . Yves Saint Laurent designed the Le Smoking suit and introduced it in 1966, while Helmut Newton 's erotized androgynous photographs of the suit made it iconic and a classic. Elvis Presley introduced an androgynous style in rock'n'roll. His pretty face and use of eye makeup often made people think he
1980-502: A significant portion of the male experience was missing. This void was questioned during the late 1970s, when women's history began to analyze gender and women. Joan Scott's seminal article, calling for gender studies as an analytical concept to explore society, power and discourse, laid the foundation for this field. According to Scott, gender should be used in two ways: productive and produced. Productive gender examined its role in creating power relationships, and produced gender explored
2079-565: A single immortal – provided a frame of reference used in Western culture for centuries. Androgyny and homosexuality are also seen in Plato's Symposium , in a myth where humanity started as three sexes: male-male people that descended from the sun, female-female people who descended from Earth, and male-female people who came from the Moon. This is one of the earlier written references to androgyny - and
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#17327809734762178-499: A social problem. In sociology , this labeling is known as gender assumptions and is part of socialization to meet the mores of a society. Non-standard behavior may be considered indicative of homosexuality , despite the fact that gender expression, gender identity and sexual orientation are widely accepted as distinct concepts. When sexuality is defined in terms of object choice (as in early sexology studies), male homosexuality may be interpreted as effeminacy . Machismo
2277-679: A society, and rather focus on what behavior is most effective within the situational circumstance. Some non-Western cultures recognize additional androgynous gender identities, called third genders . Gender expression that includes a mixture of masculine and feminine characteristics can be described as androgynous. The categories of masculine and feminine in gender expression are socially constructed , and rely on shared conceptions of clothing, behavior, communication style, and other aspects of presentation. In some cultures, androgynous gender expression has been celebrated, while in others, androgynous expression has been limited or suppressed. To say that
2376-639: A t-shirt saying "Gender is Over," a riff on the John Lennon and Yoko Ono "War is Over" poster. Singer Billie Eilish has also openly called gender roles "ancient." Since her musical debut in 2016, Eilish has worn both traditionally masculine and feminine silhouettes, wearing a Marilyn Monroe inspired Oscar de la Renta gown to the Met Gala in 2021 to being referred to as a "hey mamas" lesbian after an appearance on Chicken Shop Date in 2024 where she wore an oversized tee, bandana, and backwards cap. In
2475-472: A tough and aggressive masculinity on the sports field may display a softer masculinity in familial contexts. Masculinities vary by social class as well. Studies suggest working class constructions of masculinity to be more normative than are those from middle class men and boys. As these contexts and comparisons illustrate, theorists suggest a multiplicity of masculinities, not simply one single construction of masculinity. Historian Kate Cooper wrote: "Wherever
2574-442: A woman is mentioned a man's character is being judged – and along with it what he stands for." Scholars cite integrity and equality as masculine values in male-male relationships. Gay men are considered by some to be "effeminate and deviate from the masculine norm" and are sometimes benevolently stereotyped as "gentle and refined", even by other gay men. According to gay human-rights campaigner Peter Tatchell : Contrary to
2673-474: A young, married, white, urban, northern, heterosexual Protestant father of college education, fully employed, of good complexion, weight and height, and a recent record in sports. Writing in 1974, R. Gould asserted that the provider role was central to adult men's identities, as masculinity is often measured by the size of a man's economic contribution to the family. Masculinity is also associated with denying characteristics associated with women. Overwhelmingly,
2772-497: Is a form of masculinity that emphasizes power and is often associated with a disregard for consequences and responsibility. Some believe that masculinity is linked to the male body; in this view, masculinity is associated with male genitalia . Others have suggested that although masculinity may be influenced by biology, it is also a cultural construct. Many aspects of masculinity assumed to be natural are linguistically and culturally driven. Males were more likely to be depicted in
2871-557: Is also a complex issue in the Global South , as well. In South Africa, HIV transmission was one of the significant reasons for the development of masculinities research. Risky actions commonly representative of toxic masculinity are also present in Western and Chinese male clients' attitudes and behaviors toward female sex workers in China's commercial sex industry. While many male clients frequently exhibited physical violence toward
2970-891: Is an individual who has a high degree of both feminine (expressive) and masculine (instrumental) traits. A feminine individual is ranked high on feminine (expressive) traits and ranked low on masculine (instrumental) traits. A masculine individual is ranked high on instrumental traits and ranked low on expressive traits. An undifferentiated person is low on both feminine and masculine traits. According to Sandra Bem, androgynous individuals are more flexible and more mentally healthy than either masculine or feminine individuals; undifferentiated individuals are less competent. More recent research has debunked this idea, at least to some extent, and Bem herself has found weaknesses in her original pioneering work. Now she prefers to work with gender schema theory . One study found that masculine and androgynous individuals had higher expectations for being able to control
3069-415: Is androgynous may engage freely in what is seen as masculine or feminine behaviors as well as tasks. They may have a balanced identity that includes the virtues of both men and women and may disassociate the task with what gender they may be socially or physically assigned to. People who identify as androgynous typically disregard which traits are culturally constructed specifically for males and females within
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3168-794: Is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate. It is distinct from the definition of the biological male sex , as anyone can exhibit masculine traits. Standards of masculinity vary across different cultures and historical periods. In Western cultures, its meaning is traditionally drawn from being contrasted with femininity . Standards of manliness or masculinity vary across different cultures, subcultures, ethnic groups and historical periods. Traits traditionally viewed as masculine in Western society include strength , courage , independence , leadership , and assertiveness . When women's labor participation increased, there were men who felt less comfortable in their masculinity because it
3267-770: Is called a macaroni." An example is portrait artist Richard Cosway , referred to as "the Macaroni artist." In psychological study, various measures have been used to characterize gender, such as the Bem Sex Role Inventory and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire . Masculine traits are categorized as agentic and instrumental, dealing with assertiveness and analytical skill. Feminine traits are categorized as communal and expressive, dealing with empathy and subjectivity. Androgynous individuals exhibit behavior that extends beyond what
3366-451: Is considered proper for men and women. This idealized form of masculinity (hegemonic masculinity) legitimates and normalizes certain performances of men, and pathologizes, marginalizes, and subordinates any other expressions of masculinities or femininities (masculine and feminine subject positions). Alongside hegemonic masculinity, Connell postulated that there are other forms of masculinities (marginalized and subordinated), which, according to
3465-551: Is currently viewed as feminine and masculine, and the mix of these would vary across persons. Nevertheless, it does not suggest that everyone would be androgynous in their identities and practices in the absence of gendered relations. What disappears in the idea of genderlessness is any expectation that some characteristics and dispositions are strictly attributed to a person of any biological sex. Throughout most of twentieth century Western history, social rules have restricted people's dress according to gender. Trousers were traditionally
3564-402: Is described as transforming men into women. The 2nd century CE Mishnah , a foundational text of Rabbinic Judaism , mentions the term androgynos 32 times. In one mention, Rabbi Meir describes the androgynos as "a creation of its own type, which the sages could not decide whether is male or female". The ancient Greek myth of Hermaphroditus and Salmacis , two divinities who fused into
3663-418: Is known as the "female athlete paradox". Although traditional gender norms are gradually changing, female athletes, especially those that participate in male-dominated sports such as boxing , weight lifting , American football , rugby , ice hockey , and motorsport , are still often viewed as deviating from the boundaries of femininity and may suffer negative repercussions. Women face a similar paradox in
3762-524: Is more appropriate to discuss "masculinities" than a single overarching concept. Ancient literature dates back to about 3000 BC, with explicit expectations for men in the form of laws and implied masculine ideals in myths of gods and heroes. According to the Code of Hammurabi (about 1750 BC): In the Hebrew Bible of 1000 BC, when King David of Israel drew near to death, he told his son Solomon: "I go
3861-425: Is normally associated with their given sex. Due to the possession of both masculine and feminine characteristics, androgynous individuals have access to a wider array of psychological competencies in regards to emotional regulation, communication styles, and situational adaptability. Androgynous individuals have also been associated with higher levels of creativity and mental health. The Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI)
3960-505: Is often associated with lesbianism , expressing masculinity is not necessarily related to a woman's sexuality. In feminist philosophy , female masculinity is often characterized as a type of gender performance which challenges traditional masculinity and male dominance . Zachary A. Kramer argues that the discussion of masculinity should be opened up "to include constructions of masculinity that uniquely affect women." Masculine women are often subject to social stigma and harassment, although
4059-648: The Latin : androgynus . Androgyny is attested from earliest history and across world cultures. In ancient Sumer , androgynous and intersex men were heavily involved in the cult of Inanna . A set of priests known as gala worked in Inanna's temples, where they performed elegies and lamentations. Gala took female names, spoke in the eme-sal dialect, which was traditionally reserved for women, and appear to have engaged in sexual acts with men . In later Mesopotamian cultures, kurgarrū and assinnu were servants of
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4158-455: The planet Mercury and the botanical sign for hermaphrodite. That sign is now sometimes used for transgender people. Another common androgyny icon in the medieval and early modern period was the Rebis , a conjoined male and female figure, often with solar and lunar motifs. Still another symbol was what is today called sun cross , which united the cross (or saltire ) symbol for male with
4257-426: The "androgynous" look, with several current celebrities being hailed as creative trendsetters. The rise of the metrosexual in the first decade of the 2000s has also been described as a related phenomenon associated with this trend. Traditional gender stereotypes have been challenged and changed since the 1960s, which included the hippie movement and flower power . Artists in film such as Leonardo DiCaprio sported
4356-605: The "precariousness" of manhood contributes to traditionally-masculine behavior. "Precarious" means that manhood is not inborn, but must be achieved. In many cultures, boys endure painful initiation rituals to become men. Manhood may also be lost, as when a man is derided for not "being a man". Researchers have found that men respond to threats to their manhood by engaging in stereotypically-masculine behaviors and beliefs, such as supporting hierarchy, espousing homophobic beliefs, supporting aggression and choosing physical tasks over intellectual ones. In 2014, Winegard and Geary wrote that
4455-427: The "skinny" look in the 1990s, a departure from traditional masculinity, which resulted in the fad "Leo Mania". Musical stars such as Kurt Cobain of Nirvana , Andre 3000 , and the band Placebo have used clothing and makeup to popularize androgynous and genderqueer aesthetics throughout the 1990s and the first decade of the 2000s. While the 1990s unrolled and fashion developed an affinity for unisex clothes, there
4554-401: The 1980s, as seen in the work of Yohji Yamamoto and Rei Kawakubo , who brought in a distinct Japanese style that adopted distinctively gender ambiguous theme. These two designers consider themselves a part of the avant-garde, reinvigorating Japanism. Yamamoto has expressed the lack of necessity behind gender distinctions, stating "I always wonder who decided that there should be a difference in
4653-403: The 1980s, the rise of avant-garde fashion designers like Yohji Yamamoto , challenged the social constructs around gender. They reinvigorated androgyny in fashion, addressing gender issues. This was also reflected within pop culture icons during the 1980s, such as Grace Jones , Prince , Annie Lennox and Boy George . Power dressing for women became even more prominent within the 1980s which
4752-455: The Roman empire. Jeffrey Richards describes a European "medieval masculinity which was essentially Christian and chivalric," which included concepts like courage, respect for women of all classes and generosity. According to David Rosen, the traditional view of scholars (such as J. R. R. Tolkien ) that Beowulf is a tale of medieval heroism overlooks the similarities between Beowulf and
4851-655: The ability to form emotional and supportive relationships with others. Scholars have debated the extent to which gender identity and gender-specific behaviors are due to socialization versus biological factors. Social and biological influences are thought to be mutually interacting during development. Studies of prenatal androgen exposure have provided some evidence that femininity and masculinity are partly biologically determined. Other possible biological influences include evolution , genetics , epigenetics , and hormones (both during development and in adulthood). Scholars suggest that innate differences between
4950-428: The ancient and medieval worlds, androgynous people and/or hermaphrodites were represented in art by the caduceus , a wand of transformative power in ancient Greco-Roman mythology. The caduceus was created by Tiresias and represents his transformation into a woman by Juno in punishment for striking at mating snakes. The caduceus was later carried by Hermes / Mercury and was the basis for the astronomical symbol for
5049-651: The appearance of secondary sex characteristics. An individual's gender identity, a personal sense of one's own gender, may be described as androgynous if they feel that they have both masculine and feminine aspects. The word androgyne can refer to a person who does not fit neatly into one of the typical masculine or feminine gender roles of their society, or to a person whose gender is a mixture of male and female, not necessarily half-and-half. Many androgynous individuals identify as being mentally or emotionally both masculine and feminine. They may also identify as " gender-neutral ", " genderqueer ", or " non-binary ". A person who
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#17327809734765148-470: The ascension of power dressing as a popular style for women. Women begin to find through fashion they can incite men to pay more attention to the seduction of their mental prowess rather, than the physical attraction of their appearance. This influence in the fashion world quickly makes its way to the world of film, with movies like "Working Girl" using power dressing women as their main subject matter. Japanese designers began popularizing androgynous fashion in
5247-416: The association with homosexuality , some androgynes may find the label genderqueer inaccurate, inapplicable, or offensive. Androgyneity is considered by some to be a viable alternative to androgyn for differentiating internal (psychological) factors from external (visual) factors. An alternative to androgyny is gender-role transcendence : the view that individual competence should be conceptualized on
5346-480: The beginning of the 20th century, most families in the western world consisted of a father working outside the home as breadwinner and a mother as working homemaker in the home, often working together to raise children and/or taking care of elderly family members. The roles were often divided quite sharply between providing resources (considered masculine) and maintenance and redistribution of resources (considered feminine). Despite women's increasing participation in
5445-623: The business world, as corporate leadership roles are widely associated with stereotypically masculine characteristics. Women who adopt these characteristics may be more successful, but also more disliked due to not conforming with expected feminine stereotypes. According to a study in the UK , women with stereotypically masculine personality traits are more likely to gain access to high-paying occupations than women with feminine personality traits. According to another study conducted in Germany , women who fit
5544-494: The causes of drinking and alcoholism are complex and varied, gender roles and social expectations have a strong influence encouraging men to drink. In 2004, Arran Stibbe published an analysis of a well-known men's-health magazine in 2000. According to Stibbe, although the magazine ostensibly focused on health it also promoted traditional masculine behaviors such as excessive consumption of convenience foods and meat, alcohol consumption and unsafe sex. Masculinity and sexual health
5643-484: The circle for female. This sign is now the astronomical symbol for the planet Earth . Masculine Masculinity (also called manhood or manliness ) is a set of attributes, behaviors , and roles associated with men and boys . Masculinity can be theoretically understood as socially constructed , and there is also evidence that some behaviors considered masculine are influenced by both cultural factors and biological factors. To what extent masculinity
5742-439: The clothes of men and women" Also during the 1980s, Grace Jones , a singer and fashion model, gender-thwarted appearance in the 1980s, which startled the public. Her androgynous style inspired many and she became an androgynous style icon for modern celebrities. Androgyny has been gaining more prominence in popular culture in the early 21st century. Both the fashion industry and pop culture have accepted and even popularized
5841-467: The configuration of gender practice which embodies the currently accepted answer to the problem of the legitimacy of patriarchy , which guarantees the dominant position of men and the subordination of women". Connell (1987) placed emphasis on heterosexuality and its influence on the construction of gender. From this perspective, there is a dominant (hegemonic) and idealized form of masculinity in every social system and an apotheosized form of femininity that
5940-576: The construction of masculinity most valued in the latter part of the 20th century and the early 21st century is one that is independent, sexually assertive, and athletic, among other normative markers of manhood. There is some evidence of this construction developing slightly however. A 2008 study showed that men frequently rank good health, a harmonious family life and a good relationship with their spouse or partner as more important to their quality of life than physical attractiveness and success with women. The advent of social media has been associated with
6039-1481: The documentary The Butch Factor , gay men (one of them transgender ) were asked about their views of masculinity. Masculine traits were generally seen as an advantage in and out of the closet , allowing "butch" gay men to conceal their sexual orientation longer while engaged in masculine activities such as sports. Some did not see themselves as effeminate, and felt little connection to gay culture . Some effeminate gay men in The Butch Factor felt uncomfortable about their femininity (despite being comfortable with their sexuality), and feminine gay men may be derided by stereotypically-masculine gays. Feminine-looking men tended to come out earlier after being labeled gay by their peers. More likely to face bullying and harassment throughout their lives, they are taunted by derogatory words (such as " sissy ") implying feminine qualities. Effeminate, " campy " gay men sometimes use what John R. Ballew called "camp humor", such as referring to one another by female pronouns (according to Ballew, "a funny way of defusing hate directed toward us [gay men]"); however, such humor "can cause us [gay men] to become confused in relation to how we feel about being men". He further stated: [Heterosexual] men are sometimes advised to get in touch with their "inner feminine." Maybe gay men need to get in touch with their "inner masculine" instead. Identifying those aspects of being
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#17327809734766138-400: The fashion industry. The 21st century additionally saw global conversations around gender identity which helped further the presence of androgyny in fashion. In the mid-2010s, online searches for the word "nonbinary" skyrocketed, and young people began to see themselves as nonbinary or gender nonconforming. Actor Lachlan Watson , who uses they/them pronouns, posted a photo on Instagram wearing
6237-445: The female workers, in order to more overtly display their manliness, some men also admitted to being more sexually aggressive at times and purposefully having unprotected sex without the worker's knowledge. Research on beer-commercial content by Lance Strate yielded results relevant to a study of masculinity. In beer commercials, masculine behavior (especially risk-taking) is encouraged. Commercials often focus on situations in which
6336-554: The feminine principle (Luna) producing the "Divine Androgyne," a representation of alchemical Hermetic beliefs in dualism, transformation, and the transcendental perfection of the union of opposites. The symbolism and meaning of androgyny was a central preoccupation of the German mystic Jakob Böhme and the Swedish philosopher Emanuel Swedenborg . The philosophical concept of the "Universal Androgyne" (or "Universal Hermaphrodite") –
6435-604: The gay-rights movement, promoting hypermasculinity as inherent to gay sexuality. Masculinity has played an important role in lesbian culture, although lesbians vary widely in the degree to which they express masculinity and femininity. In LGBT cultures, masculine women are often referred to as " butch ". Traditional avenues for men to gain honor were providing for their families and exercising leadership . Raewyn Connell has labeled traditional male roles and privileges hegemonic masculinity , encouraged in men and discouraged in women: "Hegemonic masculinity can be defined as
6534-467: The goddess Ishtar (Inanna's East Semitic equivalent), who dressed in female clothing and performed war dances in Ishtar's temples. Several Akkadian proverbs seem to suggest that they may have also engaged in sexual activity with men. Gwendolyn Leick, an anthropologist known for her writings on Mesopotamia, has compared these individuals to the contemporary Indian hijra . In one Akkadian hymn, Ishtar
6633-431: The historical process (rather than change it) and that a cultural overemphasis on the approach to masculinity lacks the reality of actual experience. According to John Tosh, masculinity has become a conceptual framework used by historians to enhance their cultural explorations instead of a specialty in its own right. This draws attention from reality to representation and meaning, not only in the realm of masculinity; culture
6732-430: The history of masculinity emerged during the 1980s, aided by the fields of women's and (later) gender history. Before women's history was examined, there was a "strict gendering of the public/private divide"; regarding masculinity, this meant little study of how men related to the household, domesticity and family life. Although women's historical role was negated, despite the writing of history by (and primarily about) men,
6831-538: The imminent prospect of enslavement - a fate which the Germans fear more desperately for their women than for themselves." -Tacitus (Germania) Tacitus presented the Germanic warrior Arminius as a masculine hero in his account of ancient Germany whose already violent nature was further heightened by the abduction of his beloved wife Thusnelda by the Roman general Germanicus . In his rage Arminius demanded war against
6930-459: The influence of the feminist movement has led to greater acceptance of women expressing masculinity in recent decades. Women who participate in sports, especially male-dominated sports, are sometimes derided as being masculine. Even though most sports emphasize stereotypically masculine qualities, such as strength , competition , and aggression , women who participate in sports are still expected to conform to strictly feminine gender norms. This
7029-527: The literary discourse of the 20th and 21st centuries, HIV/AIDS as a theme and motif, hero narratives, literary mediation, performative poetry and literature in the Anthropocene , describes the Soft Heroes as “ es ”, as the trans-human beings are on the edge of formlessness and refuse to be assigned a gender. Second-wave pro-feminism paid greater attention to issues of sexuality, particularly
7128-431: The measurement of masculinity in skills such as billiards , strength, and drinking ability. Men engage in positive health practices, such as reducing fat intake and alcohol, to conform to masculine ideals. Men, boys and people who were assigned male at birth face gender policing from people who think they are not masculine enough. Gender policing can increase the risk of alcoholism, anxiety, and depression. Study of
7227-797: The media as feminine and open to ridicule, although films such as Brokeback Mountain are countering the stereotype. A recent development is the portrayal of gay men in the LGBT community as " bears ", a subculture of gay men celebrating rugged masculinity and "secondary sexual characteristics of the male: facial hair , body hair , proportional size, baldness ". In the Soft Heroes series, French artist Thomas Liu Le Lann questions concepts of post-heroic masculinity. These fabric figures refer to transhuman bodies beyond heteronormativity and question conventional notions of strength and agency. The Austrian literary scientist Rebecca Heinrich , her research interests include homosexuality and masculinities in
7326-518: The mid-18th century, the macaronis of Georgian-era England were a wealthy subculture of young men, known for androgynous gender expression . Their unusually large wigs , lavish fashion , and sentimental behavior prompted backlash from conservative generations of the time. In 1770, the Oxford Dictionary declared, "There is indeed a kind of animal, neither male nor female, a thing of the neuter gender , lately started up among us. It
7425-555: The monster Grendel. The masculinity exemplified by Beowulf "cut[s] men off from women, other men, passion and the household". In Arab culture, Hatim al-Tai is known to be a model of Arab manliness. It is said that he used to give away everything he possessed except for his mount and weapons. During the Victorian era, masculinity underwent a transformation from traditional heroism. Scottish philosopher Thomas Carlyle wrote in 1831: "The old ideal of Manhood has grown obsolete, and
7524-470: The new is still invisible to us, and we grope after it in darkness, one clutching this phantom, another that; Werterism , Byronism , even Brummelism , each has its day". Boxing was professionalized in America and Europe in the 19th century; it emphasized the physical and confrontational aspects of masculinity. Bare-knuckle boxing without gloves represented "the manly art" in 19th-century America. At
7623-553: The only case in classical Greek texts that female homosexuality (lesbianism) is ever mentioned. Philosophers such as Philo of Alexandria , and early Christian leaders such as Origen and Gregory of Nyssa , continued to promote the idea of androgyny as humans' original and perfect state during late antiquity ." In medieval Europe , the concept of androgyny played an important role in both Christian theological debate and alchemical theory. Influential theologians such as John of Damascus and John Scotus Eriugena continued to promote
7722-516: The outcomes of their academic efforts than feminine or undifferentiated individuals. The Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ) was developed in the 70s by Janet Spence, Robert Helmreich, and Joy Stapp. This test asked subjects to complete a survey consisting of three sets of scales relating to masculinity, femininity, and masculinity-femininity. These scales had sets of adjectives commonly associated with males, females, and both. These descriptors were chosen based on typical characteristics as rated by
7821-456: The paid labor force and contributions to family income, men's identities remained centered on their working lives and specifically their economic contributions. In 1963, social theorist Erving Goffman 's seminal work on stigma management presented a list of traits prescribed as categorically masculine for American men: In an important sense there is only one complete unblushing male in America:
7920-493: The pre-fall androgyny proposed by the early Church Fathers , while other clergy expounded and debated the proper view and treatment of contemporary hermaphrodites. Western esotericism 's embrace of androgyny continued into the modern period . A 1550 anthology of alchemical thought, De Alchemia , included the influential Rosary of the Philosophers , which depicts the sacred marriage of the masculine principle (Sol) with
8019-421: The precariousness of manhood involves social status (prestige or dominance), and manhood may be more (or less) precarious due to the avenues men have for achieving status. Although often ignored in discussions of masculinity, women can also express masculine traits and behaviors. In Western culture, female masculinity has been codified into identities such as " tomboy " and " butch ". Although female masculinity
8118-507: The preparation of the Philosopher's stone accompanied by allegorical illustrations, which depict, for example, the union of the male and female principles. The collection is preserved in many manuscript copies and comes perhaps from the end of the fourteenth or the beginning of the fifteenth century (some even date it to the sixteenth century). In the 1541 edition, Petraeus called for the printing of further alchemical texts. This started
8217-407: The relationship between homosexual men and hegemonic masculinity . This shift led to increased cooperation between the men's liberation and gay liberation movements developing, in part, because masculinity was understood as a social construct and in response to the universalization of "men" in previous men's movements . Men's rights activists worked to stop second-wave feminists from influencing
8316-593: The relationship of the codes of masculinity is to actual men, to existential matters, to persons and to their psychic make-up" (Tosh's human experience). De Alchemia De Alchemia is an early collection of alchemical writings first published by Johannes Petreius in Nuremberg in 1541. A second edition was published in Frankfurt in 1550 by the printer Cyriacus Jacobus. The full title reads: De Alchemia. Opuscula complura veterum philosophorum . Among
8415-418: The sexes are compounded or exaggerated by the influences of social factors. However, others have pointed to the fact that personality differences between the sexes are seen to increase with increased levels of egalitarianism. Across cultures, characteristics of masculinity are similar in essence but varying in detail, another shared pattern is that non-typical behavior of one's sex or gender may be viewed as
8514-545: The stereotypical masculine gender role are generally more successful in their careers. Evidence points to the negative impact of hegemonic masculinity on men's health-related behavior, with American men making 134.5 million fewer physician visits per year than women. Twenty-five percent of men aged 45 to 60 do not have a personal physician, increasing their risk of death from heart disease . Men between 25 and 65 are four times more likely to die from cardiovascular disease than women, and are more likely to be diagnosed with
8613-742: The texts are the important alchemical works the Rosarium Philosophorum , presented with illustrations in the second edition (1550); the Summa Perfectionis of Pseudo-Geber ; and the Tabula Smaragdina of Hermes Trismegistus . The Rosarium Philosophorum is itself an alchemical collection, taking the form of a ( florilegium ), or a collection of citations of earlier alchemical authorities, among them Khalid ibn Yazid , Pseudo- Arnaldus of Villa Nova , Alphidius , and Pseudo- Lull ) and which includes verses explaining
8712-500: The use and change of gender throughout history. This has influenced the field of masculinity, as seen in Pierre Bourdieu's definition of masculinity: produced by society and culture, and reproduced in daily life. A flurry of work in women's history led to a call for study of the male role (initially influenced by psychoanalysis) in society and emotional and interpersonal life. Connell wrote that these initial works were marked by
8811-470: The way of all the earth: be thou strong therefore, and shew thyself a man". In his book Germania (98 AD), Tacitus stated that the men from the ancient Germanic tribes fought aggressively in battle to protect their women from capture by the enemy. "It stands on record that armies already wavering and on the point of collapse have been rallied by the women, pleading heroically with their men, thrusting forward their bared bosoms, and making them realize
8910-648: The well-intentioned claim that gays are "just the same" as straights, there is a difference. What is more, the distinctive style of gay masculinity is of great social benefit. Wouldn't life be dull without the flair and imagination of queer fashion designers and interior decorators? How could the NHS cope with no gay nurses, or the education system with no gay teachers? Society should thank its lucky stars that not all men turn out straight, macho and insensitive. The different hetero and homo modes of maleness are not, of course, biologically fixed. Psychologist Joseph Pleck argues that
9009-407: The word androgynous is rarely used to formally describe mixed biological sex characteristics in humans. In modern English, the word intersex is used to more precisely describe individuals with mixed or ambiguous sex characteristics. However, both intersex and non-intersex people can exhibit a mixture of male and female sex traits such as hormone levels, type of internal and external genitalia, and
9108-459: Was "most likely to take place at the level of fantasy (individual and collective)". In focusing on culture, it is difficult to gauge the degree to which films such as Scott of the Antarctic represented the era's masculine fantasies. Michael Roper's call to focus on the subjectivity of masculinity addresses this cultural bias, because broad understanding is set aside for an examination "of what
9207-646: Was a rather " effeminate guy", When the Rolling Stones played London's Hyde Park in 1969, Mick Jagger wore a white "man's dress" designed by Michael Fish . Fish was the most fashionable shirt-maker in London, the inventor of the Kipper tie , and a principal taste-maker of the peacock revolution in men's fashion. His creation for Mick Jagger was considered to be the epitome of the swinging 60s . In 1972, David Bowie presented his alter ego Ziggy Stardust ,
9306-548: Was a rise of designers who favored that look, including Helmut Lang , Giorgio Armani , and Pierre Cardin . Men in catalogues started wearing jewellery , make up , visual kei , and designer stubble. These styles have become a significant mainstream trend of the 21st century, both in the Western world and in Asia. Japanese and Korean cultures have featured the androgynous look as a positive attribute in society, as depicted in both K-pop , J-pop , in anime and manga , as well as
9405-489: Was becoming "the bottom line, the real historical reality". Tosh critiques Martin Francis' work in this light because popular culture, rather than the experience of family life, is the basis for Francis' argument. Francis uses contemporary literature and film to demonstrate that masculinity was restless, shying away from domesticity and commitment, during the late 1940s and 1950s. Francis wrote that this flight from commitment
9504-494: Was constructed by the early leading proponent of androgyny, Sandra Bem (1977). The BSRI is one of the most widely used gender measures. Based on an individual's responses to the items in the BSRI, they are classified as having one of four gender role orientations: masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated. Bem understood that both masculine and feminine characteristics could be expressed by anyone and it would determine those gender role orientations. An androgynous person
9603-511: Was increasingly difficult for them to reconfirm their status as the breadwinner. The academic study of masculinity received increased attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s, with the number of courses on the subject in the United States rising from 30 to over 300. This has sparked investigation of the intersection of masculinity with concepts from other fields, such as the social construction of gender difference (prevalent in
9702-430: Was previously only something done by men in order to look structured and powerful. However, during the 1980s this began to take a turn as women were entering jobs with equal roles to the men. In the article "The Menswear Phenomenon" by Kathleen Beckett written for Vogue in 1984 the concept of power dressing is explored as women entered these jobs they had no choice but to tailor their wardrobes accordingly, eventually leading
9801-512: Was sometimes used synonymously with the term hermaphrodite . In some disciplines, such as botany, androgynous and hermaphroditic are still used interchangeably. When androgyny is used to refer to physical traits, it often refers to a person whose biological sex is difficult to discern at a glance because of their mixture of male and female characteristics. Because androgyny encompasses additional meanings related to gender identity and gender expression that are distinct from biological sex, today
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