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101-512: The Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ) is a personality test measuring two scales "instrumentality" and "expressivity", commonly taken to be masculinity and femininity , respectively. It is one of the most commonly used measures of gender identity , second only to the Bem Sex-Role Inventory . The PAQ was first developed by Janet T. Spence , Robert Helmreich, and Joy Stapp in 1975. The PAQ has 24 bipolar items rated on
202-491: A terminal illness because of their reluctance to see a doctor. Reasons cited for not seeing a physician include fear, denial, embarrassment, a dislike of situations out of their control and the belief that visiting a doctor is not worth the time or cost. Studies of men in North America and Europe show that men who consume alcoholic drinks often do so in order to fulfill certain social expectations of manliness. While
303-425: A "high level of generality" in "broad surveys of cultural norms". The scholarship was aware of contemporary societal changes aiming to understand and evolve (or liberate) the male role in response to feminism. John Tosh calls for a return to this aim for the history of masculinity to be useful, academically and in the public sphere. Two concerns over the study of the history of masculinity are that it would stabilize
404-540: A 2017 study utilized neural networks to see whether artificial intelligence would be able to differentiate accurately between more than 35,000 images of gay and straight faces. The results showed that the "classifier could correctly distinguish between gay and heterosexual men in 81% of cases, and in 71% of cases for women." Supporting the idea that men's faces are perceived as more feminine, analysis suggests that gay men have more "gender-atypical facial morphology, expression and grooming styles". Gay men have been presented in
505-503: A 5-point scale (e.g. item 1: "Not at all aggressive" to "Very aggressive"). The items are scored together to yield three scores: instrumentality (masculinity), expressivity (femininity) and androgyny (masculinity-femininity). The third scale is not used much. Masculinity Masculinity (also called manhood or manliness ) is a set of attributes, behaviors , and roles associated with men and boys . Masculinity can be theoretically understood as socially constructed , and there
606-798: A Cheruscan detachment of Roman auxiliary forces, probably while fighting in the Pannonian wars on the Balkan peninsula . He returned to northern Germania in AD 7 or 8, where the Roman Empire had established secure control of the territories just east of the Rhine , along the Lippe and Main rivers, and was now seeking to extend its hegemony eastward to the Weser and Elbe rivers, under Publius Quinctilius Varus ,
707-463: A defender of the liberty of his people. Based on these records, the story of Arminius was revived in the 16th century with the recovery of the histories of Tacitus, who wrote in his Annales II, 88 : Arminius, without doubt Germania's liberator, who challenged the Roman people not in its beginnings like other kings and leaders, but in the peak of its empire; in battles with changing success, undefeated in
808-421: A dispute between Arminius and Segestes who was against their relationship. In May of 15 the Roman general Germanicus captured Thusnelda. At the point of her capture she was pregnant and living with her father, who had taken her back. Arminius deeply grieved the capture of Thusnelda and did not marry again. Tacitus recorded that Arminius was "driven to frenzy" by the loss of his beloved wife. Tacitus states in
909-678: A draw in the Battle at Pontes Longi and twice defeating him (according to Tacitus): first in the Battle of Idistaviso and later at the Battle of the Angrivarian Wall . In 15, Roman troops managed to recapture one of the three legionary eagles lost in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. In 16, a second eagle was retrieved. Tiberius denied the request of Germanicus to launch an additional campaign for 17, however, having decided
1010-431: A false report of rebellion in northern Germany. He persuaded Varus to divert the three legions under his command (composed of the 17th , 18th , and 19th legions , plus three cavalry detachments and six cohorts of auxiliaries), which were at the time marching to winter quarters, to suppress the rebellion. Varus and his legions marched right into the trap that Arminius had set for them near Kalkriese . Arminius' tribe,
1111-625: A hierarchy of masculinity exists largely as a dichotomy of homosexual and heterosexual males: "Our society uses the male heterosexual-homosexual dichotomy as a central symbol for all the rankings of masculinity, for the division on any grounds between males who are "real men" and have power, and males who are not". Michael Kimmel adds that the trope "You're so gay" indicates a lack of masculinity, rather than homosexual orientation. According to Pleck, to avoid male oppression of women, themselves and other men, patriarchal structures, institutions and discourse must be eliminated from Western society. In
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#17327730049051212-549: A high-ranking administrative official appointed by Augustus as governor. Arminius began plotting to unite various Germanic tribes in order to thwart Roman efforts to incorporate their lands into the empire. This proved a difficult task, as the tribes were strongly independent and many were traditionally enemies of each other. Between AD 6 and 9, the Romans were forced to move eight of the eleven legions present in Germania east of
1313-511: A less humorous way in the evening as opposed to the daytime, whereas females were more likely to be rated in a less humorous way in the daytime as opposed to the evening. Reeser argues that although the military has a vested interest in constructing and promoting a specific form of masculinity, it does not create it. Facial hair is linked to masculinity through language, in stories about boys becoming men when they begin to shave. Some social scientists conceptualize masculinity (and femininity) as
1414-719: A major tourist attraction ever since, as has the Hermann Heights Monument , a similar statue erected in New Ulm, Minnesota , in the United States in 1897. The Hermann Heights monument was erected by the Sons of Hermann , a fraternal organization formed in New York City by German Americans as a means of self protection against anti-German sentiment and discrimination in 1840; and that flourished during
1515-407: A man overcomes an obstacle in a group, working or playing hard (construction workers, farm workers or cowboys ). Those involving play have central themes of mastery (of nature or each other), risk and adventure: fishing, camping, playing sports or socializing in bars . There is usually an element of danger and a focus on movement and speed (watching fast cars or driving fast). The bar is a setting for
1616-905: A man we most value and then cultivate those parts of our selves can lead to a healthier and less distorted sense of our own masculinity. A study by the Center for Theoretical Study at Charles University in Prague and the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic found significant differences in shape among the faces of 66 heterosexual and gay men, with gay men having more "stereotypically masculine" features ("undermin[ing] stereotypical notions of gay men as more feminine looking.") However, other studies with larger sample sizes have found that homosexual men were seen as significantly more feminine and less masculine than those of heterosexual men Furthermore,
1717-491: A number of philosophical and sociological theories). People regardless of biological sex may exhibit masculine traits and behavior. Those exhibiting both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous , and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification. The concept of masculinity varies historically and culturally. Since what constitutes masculinity has varied by time and place, according to Raewyn Connell , it
1818-512: A performance. Gender performances may not necessarily be intentional and people may not even be aware of the extent to which they are performing gender, as one outcome of lifelong gender socialization is the feeling that one's gender is "natural" or biologically-ordained. Masculine performance varies over the life course, but also from one context to another. For instance, the sports world may elicit more traditionally normative masculinities in participants than would other settings. Men who exhibit
1919-576: A plethora of studies, are constructed in oppressive ways (Thorne 1993). This is symptomatic of the fact that hegemonic masculinity is relational, which means that it is constructed in relation to and against an Other (emphasized femininity, marginalized and subordinated masculinities). In addition to describing forceful articulations of violent masculine identities, hegemonic masculinity has also been used to describe implicit, indirect, or coercive forms of gendered socialization, enacted through video games, fashion, humor, and so on. Researchers have argued that
2020-586: A rival, the Marcomanni king Maroboduus . Germanic nobles, afraid of Arminius's growing power, assassinated him in 21. He was remembered in Germanic legends for generations afterwards. The Roman historian Tacitus designated Arminius as the liberator of the Germanic tribes and commended him for having fought the Roman Empire to a standstill at the peak of its power. During the unification of Germany in
2121-650: A sense of guilt and shame, rooted in both the Holocaust and Nazi war crimes , related to any form of German nationalism . There was, however, a radically different practice in East Germany . Particularly during the Cold War , Arminius and his warriors were anachronistically reinterpreted quite similarly to the slave revolt led by Spartacus in the Marxist-Leninist official history promoted by
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#17327730049052222-502: A significant portion of the male experience was missing. This void was questioned during the late 1970s, when women's history began to analyze gender and women. Joan Scott's seminal article, calling for gender studies as an analytical concept to explore society, power and discourse, laid the foundation for this field. According to Scott, gender should be used in two ways: productive and produced. Productive gender examined its role in creating power relationships, and produced gender explored
2323-499: A social problem. In sociology , this labeling is known as gender assumptions and is part of socialization to meet the mores of a society. Non-standard behavior may be considered indicative of homosexuality , despite the fact that gender expression, gender identity and sexual orientation are widely accepted as distinct concepts. When sexuality is defined in terms of object choice (as in early sexology studies), male homosexuality may be interpreted as effeminacy . Machismo
2424-472: A tough and aggressive masculinity on the sports field may display a softer masculinity in familial contexts. Masculinities vary by social class as well. Studies suggest working class constructions of masculinity to be more normative than are those from middle class men and boys. As these contexts and comparisons illustrate, theorists suggest a multiplicity of masculinities, not simply one single construction of masculinity. Historian Kate Cooper wrote: "Wherever
2525-442: A woman is mentioned a man's character is being judged – and along with it what he stands for." Scholars cite integrity and equality as masculine values in male-male relationships. Gay men are considered by some to be "effeminate and deviate from the masculine norm" and are sometimes benevolently stereotyped as "gentle and refined", even by other gay men. According to gay human-rights campaigner Peter Tatchell : Contrary to
2626-474: A young, married, white, urban, northern, heterosexual Protestant father of college education, fully employed, of good complexion, weight and height, and a recent record in sports. Writing in 1974, R. Gould asserted that the provider role was central to adult men's identities, as masculinity is often measured by the size of a man's economic contribution to the family. Masculinity is also associated with denying characteristics associated with women. Overwhelmingly,
2727-497: Is a form of masculinity that emphasizes power and is often associated with a disregard for consequences and responsibility. Some believe that masculinity is linked to the male body; in this view, masculinity is associated with male genitalia . Others have suggested that although masculinity may be influenced by biology, it is also a cultural construct. Many aspects of masculinity assumed to be natural are linguistically and culturally driven. Males were more likely to be depicted in
2828-612: Is also a complex issue in the Global South , as well. In South Africa, HIV transmission was one of the significant reasons for the development of masculinities research. Risky actions commonly representative of toxic masculinity are also present in Western and Chinese male clients' attitudes and behaviors toward female sex workers in China's commercial sex industry. While many male clients frequently exhibited physical violence toward
2929-441: Is also evidence that some behaviors considered masculine are influenced by both cultural factors and biological factors. To what extent masculinity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate. It is distinct from the definition of the biological male sex , as anyone can exhibit masculine traits. Standards of masculinity vary across different cultures and historical periods. In Western cultures, its meaning
3030-451: Is considered proper for men and women. This idealized form of masculinity (hegemonic masculinity) legitimates and normalizes certain performances of men, and pathologizes, marginalizes, and subordinates any other expressions of masculinities or femininities (masculine and feminine subject positions). Alongside hegemonic masculinity, Connell postulated that there are other forms of masculinities (marginalized and subordinated), which, according to
3131-418: Is known as the "female athlete paradox". Although traditional gender norms are gradually changing, female athletes, especially those that participate in male-dominated sports such as boxing , weight lifting , American football , rugby , ice hockey , and motorsport , are still often viewed as deviating from the boundaries of femininity and may suffer negative repercussions. Women face a similar paradox in
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3232-524: Is more appropriate to discuss "masculinities" than a single overarching concept. Ancient literature dates back to about 3000 BC, with explicit expectations for men in the form of laws and implied masculine ideals in myths of gods and heroes. According to the Code of Hammurabi (about 1750 BC): In the Hebrew Bible of 1000 BC, when King David of Israel drew near to death, he told his son Solomon: "I go
3333-505: Is often associated with lesbianism , expressing masculinity is not necessarily related to a woman's sexuality. In feminist philosophy , female masculinity is often characterized as a type of gender performance which challenges traditional masculinity and male dominance . Zachary A. Kramer argues that the discussion of masculinity should be opened up "to include constructions of masculinity that uniquely affect women." Masculine women are often subject to social stigma and harassment, although
3434-507: Is traditionally drawn from being contrasted with femininity . Standards of manliness or masculinity vary across different cultures, subcultures, ethnic groups and historical periods. Traits traditionally viewed as masculine in Western society include strength , courage , independence , leadership , and assertiveness . When women's labor participation increased, there were men who felt less comfortable in their masculinity because it
3535-630: Is unknown, and confusion is further created by recent scholars who alternately referred to him as Armenus . In his History , Marcus Velleius Paterculus calls him "Arminius, the son of Sigimer, a prince of the nation" and states he "attained the dignity of equestrian rank ". Due to Roman naming conventions of the time, it is likely Arminius is an adopted name granted to him upon citizenship or in any case not his Germanic name . The name instead appears to ultimately be of Etruscan origin, appearing as armne and armni on inscriptions found at Volaterrae . According to another theory, that name
3636-728: The Annals : Arminius, with his naturally furious temper, was driven to frenzy by the seizure of his wife and the foredooming to slavery of his wife's unborn child. He flew hither and thither among the Cherusci, demanding "war against Segestes, war against Cæsar." And he refrained not from taunts. Thusnelda gave birth to a son named Thumelicus who grew up in Roman captivity. Tacitus describes him as having an unusual story, which he promises to tell in his later writings, but these writings have never been found. Between 14 and 16, Germanicus led punitive operations into Germany, fighting Arminius to
3737-589: The Cherusci , and their allies the Marsi , Chatti , Bructeri , Chauci , and Sicambri (five out of at least fifty Germanic tribes at the time) ambushed and annihilated Varus' entire army, totaling over 20,000 men, as it marched along a narrow road through a dense forest. Recent archaeological finds show the long-debated location of the three-day battle was almost certainly near Kalkriese Hill, about 20 kilometres (12 mi) north of present-day Osnabrück . When defeat
3838-688: The Old High German heri meaning "war" and man meaning "person" or "man". This has also led to his English nickname "Herman the German." Born in 18 or 17 BC in Germania , Arminius was the son of the Cheruscan chief Segimerus (German: Segimer ; Proto-Germanic: Sigimariz ; Old English: Sigemær ), who was allied with Rome. Arminius learned to speak Latin and joined the Roman military with his younger brother Flavus . He served in
3939-819: The Roman Catholic Church . During the military occupation of the German States, first by the French Revolutionary Army and then by the French Imperial Army of Napoleon Bonaparte , Hermann der Cheruskerfürst once again became a national icon and a martyr within both German Romanticism and the anti-Colonialist romantic nationalism fueled by the Napoleonic Wars , which are still termed in Germany
4040-460: The Roman army between AD 1 and 6, and received a military education as well as Roman citizenship and the status of equite before returning to Germania. These experiences gave him knowledge of Roman politics and military tactics, which allowed him to successfully anticipate enemy battle maneuvers during his later campaigns against the Roman army. Around the year AD 4, Arminius assumed command of
4141-706: The Wars of Liberation . This may particularly be seen as in Caspar David Friedrich 's 1812 painting The Tombs of the Old Heroes . During the unification of Germany in the 19th century, Arminius was hailed as a symbol of German unity and liberation. In 1808, Heinrich von Kleist wrote the play Die Hermannsschlacht , but with Napoleon's victory at Wagram it remained in manuscript, being published in 1821 and not staged until 1860. The play has been revived repeatedly at moments of national crisis and
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4242-605: The "precariousness" of manhood contributes to traditionally-masculine behavior. "Precarious" means that manhood is not inborn, but must be achieved. In many cultures, boys endure painful initiation rituals to become men. Manhood may also be lost, as when a man is derided for not "being a man". Researchers have found that men respond to threats to their manhood by engaging in stereotypically-masculine behaviors and beliefs, such as supporting hierarchy, espousing homophobic beliefs, supporting aggression and choosing physical tasks over intellectual ones. In 2014, Winegard and Geary wrote that
4343-600: The 19th century in American cities and rural areas with large populations speaking the German language in the United States . Hermann, Missouri , a town on the Missouri River founded in the 1830s and incorporated in 1845, was also named for Arminius. Following the defeat of Nazi Germany in 1945, Arminius became lesser-known among West Germans and the educational system shied away from teaching about his life due to
4444-467: The 19th century, Arminius was hailed by German nationalists as a symbol of German unity and freedom. Following World War II , however, Arminius' significance diminished in Germany due to the rise of anti-militarism , pacifism , and anti-nationalism ; the 2,000th anniversary of his victory at the Teutoburg Forest was only lightly commemorated in Germany. The etymology of the Latin name Arminius
4545-518: The Germanic leader into a reimagining of the twelfth chapter of Lucian 's satirical Dialogues of the Dead ; a debate between Alexander the Great , Hannibal , and Scipio Africanus before the underworld judgment seat of Minos over who most deserves the position of history's greatest general and military strategist. Arminius argues his own claim and calls upon Tacitus to bear witness, and ultimately wins
4646-540: The Gnitaheidr—today the suburb Knetterheide of the city of Bad Salzuflen , located at a strategic site on the Werre river which could very well have been the point of departure of Varus' legions on their way to their doom in the Teutoburg Forest. One of the foremost Scandinavian scholars of the 19th century, Guðbrandur Vigfússon , identified Sigurd as Arminius. This educated guess was also picked up by Otto Höfler , who
4747-748: The Rhine could be supplied from the Mediterranean Sea via the Rhône , Saône , and Mosel , with only a brief area of portage. Armies on the Elbe, however, would have to have been supplied by extensive overland routes or by ships travelling the hazardous Atlantic. Economically, the Rhine already had towns and sizable villages at the time of the Gallic conquest. The Rhine was significantly more accessible from Rome and better equipped to supply sizable garrisons than
4848-572: The Rhine to crush a rebellion in the Balkans , leaving Varus with only three legions to face the Germans, which was still 18,000 troops, or 6,000 men per legion. An additional two legions, under the command of Lucius Nonius Asprenas , were stationed in Moguntiacum . Arminius saw this as the perfect opportunity to defeat Varus. In the autumn of AD 9, the 25-year-old Arminius brought to Varus
4949-641: The Roman Empire and fought under Germanicus against Arminius at the Battle of Idistaviso. With the end of the Roman threat, a war broke out between Arminius and Marbod , king of the Marcomanni . It ended with Marbod fleeing to Ravenna and Roman protection, but Arminius failed to break into the "natural fortification" of Bohemia , and the war ended in stalemate. In 19, Germanicus died in Antioch under circumstances which led many to believe he had been poisoned by his opponents. Arminius died two years later in 21, murdered by opponents within his own tribe who felt that he
5050-474: The Roman Empire. The Romans made no further concerted efforts to conquer and permanently hold Germania beyond the Rhine and the Agri Decumates . Numerous modern historians have regarded Arminius' victory as one of the most decisive battles in history, with some calling it "Rome's greatest defeat". In the accounts of his Roman enemies, Arminius is highly regarded for his military leadership and as
5151-485: The Roman conquest of the Germanic tribes. While in this capacity, Arminius secretly plotted a Germanic revolt against Roman rule, which culminated in the ambush and destruction of three Roman legions in the Teutoburg Forest. In the aftermath of the battle, Arminius fought retaliatory invasions by the Roman general Germanicus in the battles of Pontes Longi , Idistaviso , and the Angrivarian Wall , and deposed
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#17327730049055252-407: The Roman defense on the Rhine and Tiberius to arrive with a new army. This prevented Arminius from crossing the Rhine and invading Gaul. At some point after the battle, Arminius married a Germanic princess named Thusnelda . Her father was the Cheruscan prince Segestes , who was pro-Roman. But Arminius abducted and then impregnated Thusnelda circa AD 14. This elopement was likely a result of
5353-403: The Roman empire. Jeffrey Richards describes a European "medieval masculinity which was essentially Christian and chivalric," which included concepts like courage, respect for women of all classes and generosity. According to David Rosen, the traditional view of scholars (such as J. R. R. Tolkien ) that Beowulf is a tale of medieval heroism overlooks the similarities between Beowulf and
5454-543: The State; as an early socialist revolution and as revolutionary terror against the "Roman slaveholder society"( Sklavenhaltergesellschaft ). The legacy of Arminius and his followers was further reinterpreted as symbolic of the allegedly "peace-loving" Warsaw Pact countries, while Imperial Rome was made into a symbol of the capitalist and allegedly Fascistic United States and the NATO military alliance , which were cast as
5555-633: The Weser river, between the towns of Kalefeld and Bad Gandersheim . In the early 19th century, attempts were made to show that the story of Arminius and his victory may have lived on in the Old Norse sagas , in the form of the dragon slayer Sigurd of the Völsunga saga and the Nibelungenlied (Under his Germanic name Siegfried). An Icelandic account states that Sigurd "slew the dragon" in
5656-655: The ability to form emotional and supportive relationships with others. Scholars have debated the extent to which gender identity and gender-specific behaviors are due to socialization versus biological factors. Social and biological influences are thought to be mutually interacting during development. Studies of prenatal androgen exposure have provided some evidence that femininity and masculinity are partly biologically determined. Other possible biological influences include evolution , genetics , epigenetics , and hormones (both during development and in adulthood). Scholars suggest that innate differences between
5757-486: The battle, the Germans quickly annihilated every trace of Roman presence east of the Rhine. Roman settlements such as the Waldgirmes Forum were abandoned. The vastly outnumbered Roman garrison of Aliso (present-day Haltern am See ), under the command of the prefect Lucius Cedicius, inflicted heavy losses on the Germans before retreating into Gaul , resisting long enough for Lucius Nonius Asprenas to organize
5858-480: The beginning of the 20th century, most families in the western world consisted of a father working outside the home as breadwinner and a mother as working homemaker in the home, often working together to raise children and/or taking care of elderly family members. The roles were often divided quite sharply between providing resources (considered masculine) and maintenance and redistribution of resources (considered feminine). Despite women's increasing participation in
5959-623: The business world, as corporate leadership roles are widely associated with stereotypically masculine characteristics. Women who adopt these characteristics may be more successful, but also more disliked due to not conforming with expected feminine stereotypes. According to a study in the UK , women with stereotypically masculine personality traits are more likely to gain access to high-paying occupations than women with feminine personality traits. According to another study conducted in Germany , women who fit
6060-628: The case and the eloquent praise of Minos. This version influenced later adaptations of the story, and reflected a wide interest in Arminius during the years of the German Reformation ; the name Arminius was interpreted as reflecting the name Hermann by Martin Luther , who saw Arminius as a symbol of his religious followers among the German people and their resistance to the Papacy and
6161-494: The causes of drinking and alcoholism are complex and varied, gender roles and social expectations have a strong influence encouraging men to drink. In 2004, Arran Stibbe published an analysis of a well-known men's-health magazine in 2000. According to Stibbe, although the magazine ostensibly focused on health it also promoted traditional masculine behaviors such as excessive consumption of convenience foods and meat, alcohol consumption and unsafe sex. Masculinity and sexual health
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#17327730049056262-531: The command of general and governor Publius Quinctilius Varus were destroyed. His victory at Teutoburg Forest precipitated the Roman Empire 's permanent strategic withdrawal and the decolonisation of Germania Magna , and modern historians regard it as one of Imperial Rome's greatest defeats. As it prevented the Romanization of Germanic peoples east of the Rhine , it has also been considered one of
6363-467: The configuration of gender practice which embodies the currently accepted answer to the problem of the legitimacy of patriarchy , which guarantees the dominant position of men and the subordination of women". Connell (1987) placed emphasis on heterosexuality and its influence on the construction of gender. From this perspective, there is a dominant (hegemonic) and idealized form of masculinity in every social system and an apotheosized form of femininity that
6464-576: The construction of masculinity most valued in the latter part of the 20th century and the early 21st century is one that is independent, sexually assertive, and athletic, among other normative markers of manhood. There is some evidence of this construction developing slightly however. A 2008 study showed that men frequently rank good health, a harmonious family life and a good relationship with their spouse or partner as more important to their quality of life than physical attractiveness and success with women. The advent of social media has been associated with
6565-1481: The documentary The Butch Factor , gay men (one of them transgender ) were asked about their views of masculinity. Masculine traits were generally seen as an advantage in and out of the closet , allowing "butch" gay men to conceal their sexual orientation longer while engaged in masculine activities such as sports. Some did not see themselves as effeminate, and felt little connection to gay culture . Some effeminate gay men in The Butch Factor felt uncomfortable about their femininity (despite being comfortable with their sexuality), and feminine gay men may be derided by stereotypically-masculine gays. Feminine-looking men tended to come out earlier after being labeled gay by their peers. More likely to face bullying and harassment throughout their lives, they are taunted by derogatory words (such as " sissy ") implying feminine qualities. Effeminate, " campy " gay men sometimes use what John R. Ballew called "camp humor", such as referring to one another by female pronouns (according to Ballew, "a funny way of defusing hate directed toward us [gay men]"); however, such humor "can cause us [gay men] to become confused in relation to how we feel about being men". He further stated: [Heterosexual] men are sometimes advised to get in touch with their "inner feminine." Maybe gay men need to get in touch with their "inner masculine" instead. Identifying those aspects of being
6666-445: The female workers, in order to more overtly display their manliness, some men also admitted to being more sexually aggressive at times and purposefully having unprotected sex without the worker's knowledge. Research on beer-commercial content by Lance Strate yielded results relevant to a study of masculinity. In beer commercials, masculine behavior (especially risk-taking) is encouraged. Commercials often focus on situations in which
6767-454: The frontier with Germania would stand at the Rhine river. Instead, he offered Germanicus the honor of a triumph for his two victories. The third Roman eagle was recovered in 41 by Publius Gabinius, under the emperor Claudius . Arminius also faced opposition from his father-in-law and other pro-Roman Germanic leaders. His brother Flavus, who had been raised alongside him in Rome, remained loyal to
6868-604: The gay-rights movement, promoting hypermasculinity as inherent to gay sexuality. Masculinity has played an important role in lesbian culture, although lesbians vary widely in the degree to which they express masculinity and femininity. In LGBT cultures, masculine women are often referred to as " butch ". Traditional avenues for men to gain honor were providing for their families and exercising leadership . Raewyn Connell has labeled traditional male roles and privileges hegemonic masculinity , encouraged in men and discouraged in women: "Hegemonic masculinity can be defined as
6969-431: The historical process (rather than change it) and that a cultural overemphasis on the approach to masculinity lacks the reality of actual experience. According to John Tosh, masculinity has become a conceptual framework used by historians to enhance their cultural explorations instead of a specialty in its own right. This draws attention from reality to representation and meaning, not only in the realm of masculinity; culture
7070-430: The history of masculinity emerged during the 1980s, aided by the fields of women's and (later) gender history. Before women's history was examined, there was a "strict gendering of the public/private divide"; regarding masculinity, this meant little study of how men related to the household, domesticity and family life. Although women's historical role was negated, despite the writing of history by (and primarily about) men,
7171-427: The imminent prospect of enslavement - a fate which the Germans fear more desperately for their women than for themselves." -Tacitus (Germania) Tacitus presented the Germanic warrior Arminius as a masculine hero in his account of ancient Germany whose already violent nature was further heightened by the abduction of his beloved wife Thusnelda by the Roman general Germanicus . In his rage Arminius demanded war against
7272-459: The influence of the feminist movement has led to greater acceptance of women expressing masculinity in recent decades. Women who participate in sports, especially male-dominated sports, are sometimes derided as being masculine. Even though most sports emphasize stereotypically masculine qualities, such as strength , competition , and aggression , women who participate in sports are still expected to conform to strictly feminine gender norms. This
7373-527: The literary discourse of the 20th and 21st centuries, HIV/AIDS as a theme and motif, hero narratives, literary mediation, performative poetry and literature in the Anthropocene , describes the Soft Heroes as “ es ”, as the trans-human beings are on the edge of formlessness and refuse to be assigned a gender. Second-wave pro-feminism paid greater attention to issues of sexuality, particularly
7474-431: The measurement of masculinity in skills such as billiards , strength, and drinking ability. Men engage in positive health practices, such as reducing fat intake and alcohol, to conform to masculine ideals. Men, boys and people who were assigned male at birth face gender policing from people who think they are not masculine enough. Gender policing can increase the risk of alcoholism, anxiety, and depression. Study of
7575-797: The media as feminine and open to ridicule, although films such as Brokeback Mountain are countering the stereotype. A recent development is the portrayal of gay men in the LGBT community as " bears ", a subculture of gay men celebrating rugged masculinity and "secondary sexual characteristics of the male: facial hair , body hair , proportional size, baldness ". In the Soft Heroes series, French artist Thomas Liu Le Lann questions concepts of post-heroic masculinity. These fabric figures refer to transhuman bodies beyond heteronormativity and question conventional notions of strength and agency. The Austrian literary scientist Rebecca Heinrich , her research interests include homosexuality and masculinities in
7676-555: The monster Grendel. The masculinity exemplified by Beowulf "cut[s] men off from women, other men, passion and the household". In Arab culture, Hatim al-Tai is known to be a model of Arab manliness. It is said that he used to give away everything he possessed except for his mount and weapons. During the Victorian era, masculinity underwent a transformation from traditional heroism. Scottish philosopher Thomas Carlyle wrote in 1831: "The old ideal of Manhood has grown obsolete, and
7777-589: The most decisive battles in history and a turning point in human history . Born a prince of the Cherusci tribe, Arminius was part of the Roman-friendly faction of the tribe. He learned Latin and served in the Roman military, which gained him Roman citizenship , and the rank of eques . After serving with distinction in the Great Illyrian Revolt , he was sent to Germania to aid the local governor Publius Quinctilius Varus in completing
7878-406: The new evil empire needing to be resisted. According to journalist David Crossland: "The old nationalism has been replaced by an easy-going patriotism that mainly manifests itself at sporting events like the soccer World Cup ." The German Bundesliga football club DSC Arminia Bielefeld is named after Arminius. In the German diaspora , on the other hand, the 2,000-year anniversary of the battle
7979-470: The new is still invisible to us, and we grope after it in darkness, one clutching this phantom, another that; Werterism , Byronism , even Brummelism , each has its day". Boxing was professionalized in America and Europe in the 19th century; it emphasized the physical and confrontational aspects of masculinity. Bare-knuckle boxing without gloves represented "the manly art" in 19th-century America. At
8080-456: The paid labor force and contributions to family income, men's identities remained centered on their working lives and specifically their economic contributions. In 1963, social theorist Erving Goffman 's seminal work on stigma management presented a list of traits prescribed as categorically masculine for American men: In an important sense there is only one complete unblushing male in America:
8181-467: The powerful Suebi , etc. Only when indirect methods proved insufficient to control the Germanic tribes beyond the Rhine, did Roman emperors occasionally lead devastating punitive campaigns deep into Germania. One of them, led by the Roman emperor Maximinus Thrax , resulted in a Roman victory in 235 at the Battle at the Harzhorn Hill , located in the modern German state of Lower Saxony , east of
8282-421: The precariousness of manhood involves social status (prestige or dominance), and manhood may be more (or less) precarious due to the avenues men have for achieving status. Although often ignored in discussions of masculinity, women can also express masculine traits and behaviors. In Western culture, female masculinity has been codified into identities such as " tomboy " and " butch ". Although female masculinity
8383-458: The regions beyond. Rome chose no longer to rule directly in Germania east of the Rhine and north of the Danube , instead preferring to exert indirect influence through the tactics of using divide and rule and the appointing of client kings , which were cheaper than military campaigns. Italicus , nephew of Arminius, was appointed king of the Cherusci; Vangio and Sido became vassal princes of
8484-407: The relationship between homosexual men and hegemonic masculinity . This shift led to increased cooperation between the men's liberation and gay liberation movements developing, in part, because masculinity was understood as a social construct and in response to the universalization of "men" in previous men's movements . Men's rights activists worked to stop second-wave feminists from influencing
8585-510: The relationship of the codes of masculinity is to actual men, to existential matters, to persons and to their psychic make-up" (Tosh's human experience). Arminius Arminius ( / ɑːr ˈ m ɪ n i ə s / ; 18/17 BC–AD 21) was a chieftain of the Germanic Cherusci tribe who is best known for commanding an alliance of Germanic tribes at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in AD 9, in which three Roman legions under
8686-418: The sexes are compounded or exaggerated by the influences of social factors. However, others have pointed to the fact that personality differences between the sexes are seen to increase with increased levels of egalitarianism. Across cultures, characteristics of masculinity are similar in essence but varying in detail, another shared pattern is that non-typical behavior of one's sex or gender may be viewed as
8787-545: The stereotypical masculine gender role are generally more successful in their careers. Evidence points to the negative impact of hegemonic masculinity on men's health-related behavior, with American men making 134.5 million fewer physician visits per year than women. Twenty-five percent of men aged 45 to 60 do not have a personal physician, increasing their risk of death from heart disease . Men between 25 and 65 are four times more likely to die from cardiovascular disease than women, and are more likely to be diagnosed with
8888-500: The use and change of gender throughout history. This has influenced the field of masculinity, as seen in Pierre Bourdieu's definition of masculinity: produced by society and culture, and reproduced in daily life. A flurry of work in women's history led to a call for study of the male role (initially influenced by psychoanalysis) in society and emotional and interpersonal life. Connell wrote that these initial works were marked by
8989-447: The war. Arminius was not the only reason for Rome's change of policy towards Germania. Politics also played a factor; emperors found they could rarely trust a large army to a potential rival, though Augustus had enough loyal family members to wage his wars. Also, Augustus, in his 40-year reign, had annexed many territories still at the beginning of the process of Romanization. Tiberius, who succeeded Augustus in AD 14, decided that Germania
9090-470: The way of all the earth: be thou strong therefore, and shew thyself a man". In his book Germania (98 AD), Tacitus stated that the men from the ancient Germanic tribes fought aggressively in battle to protect their women from capture by the enemy. "It stands on record that armies already wavering and on the point of collapse have been rallied by the women, pleading heroically with their men, thrusting forward their bared bosoms, and making them realize
9191-648: The well-intentioned claim that gays are "just the same" as straights, there is a difference. What is more, the distinctive style of gay masculinity is of great social benefit. Wouldn't life be dull without the flair and imagination of queer fashion designers and interior decorators? How could the NHS cope with no gay nurses, or the education system with no gay teachers? Society should thank its lucky stars that not all men turn out straight, macho and insensitive. The different hetero and homo modes of maleness are not, of course, biologically fixed. Psychologist Joseph Pleck argues that
9292-572: The world's first superpowers. Indeed, learning of his victory over the Roman army was especially important to German Renaissance humanists , as the Renaissance only reached the Holy Roman Empire much later than southern Europe and German humanists were widely looked down upon by their Italian colleagues. The first literary adaptation of the Arminius story came in 1520 with Ulrich von Hutten 's Latin dialogue Arminius , which inserts
9393-459: Was "most likely to take place at the level of fantasy (individual and collective)". In focusing on culture, it is difficult to gauge the degree to which films such as Scott of the Antarctic represented the era's masculine fantasies. Michael Roper's call to focus on the subjectivity of masculinity addresses this cultural bias, because broad understanding is set aside for an examination "of what
9494-417: Was a far less developed land, possessing few villages and only a small food surplus, and therefore was not currently important to Rome. Conquering Germania would require a commitment too burdensome for the imperial finances and an excessive expenditure of military force. Modern scholars have pointed out that the Rhine was a more practical boundary for the Roman Empire than any other river in Germania. Armies on
9595-479: Was a prominent Nazi academic during World War II . After Tacitus' Annals were rediscovered by Renaissance humanists and first published during the Gutenberg Revolution of the 15th century, Arminius became an important symbol of German national identity , as a figure who successfully opposed colonialism and prevented the Romanization of his people by outgeneraling and defeating one of
9696-489: Was becoming "the bottom line, the real historical reality". Tosh critiques Martin Francis' work in this light because popular culture, rather than the experience of family life, is the basis for Francis' argument. Francis uses contemporary literature and film to demonstrate that masculinity was restless, shying away from domesticity and commitment, during the late 1940s and 1950s. Francis wrote that this flight from commitment
9797-404: Was becoming too powerful. Tiberius allegedly had refused an earlier offer from a Chatti nobleman to poison Arminius: "It was not by secret treachery but openly and by arms that the people of Rome avenged themselves on their enemies." Arminius' victory against the Roman legions in the Teutoburg Forest had a far-reaching effect on the subsequent history of both the ancient Germanic peoples and on
9898-432: Was certain, Varus committed suicide by falling upon his sword. The battle was one of the most devastating defeats Rome suffered in its history. Arminius' success in destroying three entire legions and driving the Romans out of Germany marked a high point of Germanic power for centuries. Roman attempts to reconquer Germania failed, although they did eventually manage to break Arminius' carefully coordinated alliance. After
9999-675: Was especially used as propaganda in Nazi Germany . In 1838, construction was started on a massive statue of Arminius, known as the Hermannsdenkmal , on a hill near Detmold in the Teutoburg Forest; it was finally completed and dedicated during the early years of the Second German Empire in the wake of the German victory over France in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871. The monument has been
10100-537: Was given to Arminius for his service in Armenia. The German translation of Arminius as the name Hermann dates from the 16th century, possibly first by Martin Luther . In German, Arminius was traditionally distinguished as Hermann der Cherusker ("Hermann the Cheruscan") or Hermann der Cheruskerfürst ("Hermann the Cheruscan Prince"). Hermann etymologically means "Man of War", coming from
10201-448: Was increasingly difficult for them to reconfirm their status as the breadwinner. The academic study of masculinity received increased attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s, with the number of courses on the subject in the United States rising from 30 to over 300. This has sparked investigation of the intersection of masculinity with concepts from other fields, such as the social construction of gender difference (prevalent in
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