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80-482: James Redding Ware (1832  – c. 1909, pseudonym Andrew Forrester ) was a British writer, novelist and playwright , creator of one of the first female detectives in fiction. His last known work was a dictionary . James Redding Ware was born in Southwark , South London , in 1832, the son of James Ware, a grocer, and Elizabeth, née Redding. By 1851, his father had died, and his mother, according to

160-504: A right to resist occupation. According to Joint Publication 1-02, the United States Department of Defense defines a resistance movement as "an organized effort by some portion of the civil population of a country to resist the legally established government or an occupying power and to disrupt civil order and stability". In strict military terminology, a resistance movement is simply that; it seeks to resist (change)

240-505: A "handle" (a term deriving from CB slang ), " user name", " login name", " avatar ", or, sometimes, " screen name ", " gamertag ", "IGN ( I n G ame ( N ick) N ame)" or " nickname ". On the Internet, pseudonymous remailers use cryptography that achieves persistent pseudonymity, so that two-way communication can be achieved, and reputations can be established, without linking physical identities to their respective pseudonyms. Aliasing

320-475: A City Detective (1864?); The Private Detective and Revelations of the Private Detective (both c. 1868). "Forrester" was for many years known to be a pseudonym , but who he was actually was unknown. However, one of his stories, "A Child Found Dead: Murder or No Murder?", was discovered, reprinted as a pamphlet and published under the name of J. Redding Ware, as "The Road Murder", an analysis of

400-726: A Web server that disguises the user's IP address. But most open proxy addresses are blocked indefinitely due to their frequent use by vandals. Additionally, Misplaced Pages's public record of a user's interest areas, writing style, and argumentative positions may still establish an identifiable pattern. System operators ( sysops ) at sites offering pseudonymity, such as Misplaced Pages, are not likely to build unlinkability into their systems, as this would render them unable to obtain information about abusive users quickly enough to stop vandalism and other undesirable behaviors. Law enforcement personnel, fearing an avalanche of illegal behavior, are equally unenthusiastic. Still, some users and privacy activists like

480-586: A country. The Oxford English Dictionary records use of the word "resistance" in the sense of organised opposition to an invader from 1862. The modern usage of the term "Resistance" became widespread from the self-designation of many movements during World War II, especially the French Resistance . The term is still strongly linked to the context of the events of 1939–45, and particularly to opposition movements in Axis-occupied countries. Using

560-445: A degree of privacy, to better market themselves, and other reasons. In some cases, pseudonyms are adopted because they are part of a cultural or organisational tradition; for example, devotional names are used by members of some religious institutes , and "cadre names" are used by Communist party leaders such as Trotsky and Lenin . A collective name or collective pseudonym is one shared by two or more persons, for example,

640-421: A favorable reputation, they are more likely to behave in accordance with the site's policies. If users can obtain new pseudonymous identities freely or at a very low cost, reputation-based systems are vulnerable to whitewashing attacks, also called serial pseudonymity , in which abusive users continuously discard their old identities and acquire new ones in order to escape the consequences of their behavior: "On

720-546: A field dominated by women – have used female pen names. A few examples are Brindle Chase, Peter O'Donnell (as Madeline Brent), Christopher Wood (as Penny Sutton and Rosie Dixon), and Hugh C. Rae (as Jessica Sterling). A pen name may be used if a writer's real name is likely to be confused with the name of another writer or notable individual, or if the real name is deemed unsuitable. Authors who write both fiction and non-fiction, or in different genres, may use different pen names to avoid confusing their readers. For example,

800-434: A good reputation. System operators may need to remind experienced users that most newcomers are well-intentioned (see, for example, Misplaced Pages's policy about biting newcomers ). Concerns have also been expressed about sock puppets exhausting the supply of easily remembered usernames. In addition a recent research paper demonstrated that people behave in a potentially more aggressive manner when using pseudonyms/nicknames (due to

880-481: A manner that the new name becomes permanent and is used by all who know the person. This is not an alias or pseudonym, but in fact a new name. In many countries, including common law countries, a name change can be ratified by a court and become a person's new legal name. Pseudonymous authors may still have their various identities linked together through stylometric analysis of their writing style. The precise degree of this unmasking ability and its ultimate potential

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960-745: A movement may seek to achieve its goals through either the use of violent or nonviolent resistance (sometimes called civil resistance ), or the use of force, whether armed or unarmed. In many cases, as for example in the United States during the American Revolution , or in Norway in the Second World War , a resistance movement may employ both violent and non-violent methods, usually operating under different organizations and acting in different phases or geographical areas within

1040-488: A process known as de-identification . Nicolaus Copernicus put forward his theory of heliocentrism in the manuscript Commentariolus anonymously, in part because of his employment as a law clerk for a church -government organization. Sophie Germain and William Sealy Gosset used pseudonyms to publish their work in the field of mathematics – Germain, to avoid rampant 19th century academic misogyny , and Gosset, to avoid revealing brewing practices of his employer,

1120-431: A pseudonym in literature is to present a story as being written by the fictional characters in the story. The series of novels known as A Series of Unfortunate Events are written by Daniel Handler under the pen name of Lemony Snicket , a character in the series. This applies also to some of the several 18th-century English and American writers who used the name Fidelia . An anonymity pseudonym or multiple-use name

1200-412: A pseudonym is called a stage name , or, occasionally, a professional name , or screen name . Members of a marginalized ethnic or religious group have often adopted stage names, typically changing their surname or entire name to mask their original background. Stage names are also used to create a more marketable name, as in the case of Creighton Tull Chaney, who adopted the pseudonym Lon Chaney Jr. ,

1280-401: A pseudonym representing the trio of James Madison , Alexander Hamilton , and John Jay . The papers were written partially in response to several Anti-Federalist Papers , also written under pseudonyms. As a result of this pseudonymity, historians know that the papers were written by Madison, Hamilton, and Jay, but have not been able to discern with certainty which of the three authored a few of

1360-441: A pseudonym to disguise the extent of their published output, e. g. Stephen King writing as Richard Bachman . Co-authors may choose to publish under a collective pseudonym, e. g., P. J. Tracy and Perri O'Shaughnessy . Frederic Dannay and Manfred Lee used the name Ellery Queen as a pen name for their collaborative works and as the name of their main character. Asa Earl Carter , a Southern white segregationist affiliated with

1440-484: A reference to his famous father Lon Chaney Sr. Chris Curtis of Deep Purple fame was christened as Christopher Crummey ("crummy" is UK slang for poor quality). In this and similar cases a stage name is adopted simply to avoid an unfortunate pun. Resistance movement A resistance movement is an organized group of people that tries to resist or try to overthrow a government or an occupying power , causing disruption and unrest in civil order and stability. Such

1520-667: A right to speak using a pseudonym. This right does not, however, give citizens the right to demand publication of pseudonymous speech on equipment they do not own. Most Web sites that offer pseudonymity retain information about users. These sites are often susceptible to unauthorized intrusions into their non-public database systems. For example, in 2000, a Welsh teenager obtained information about more than 26,000 credit card accounts, including that of Bill Gates. In 2003, VISA and MasterCard announced that intruders obtained information about 5.6 million credit cards. Sites that offer pseudonymity are also vulnerable to confidentiality breaches. In

1600-648: A similar fire accident at Triangle Shirtwaist Company, New York, 1911, killing 146 workers, which caused a labor resistance by 100,000 people. He argued that no resistance took place in response to the fire accident in Hamlet because most of the people who died there were black and women workers, and he believed that not only class but also other identities such as race, gender, and sexuality were important factors in understanding nature and outcome of resistance. For an effective resistance, he proposed that four tasks should be undertaken: First, social justice must be defined from

1680-459: A soldier prêt à boire , ready to drink). In 1716, a nom de guerre was mandatory for every soldier; officers did not adopt noms de guerre as they considered them derogatory. In daily life, these aliases could replace the real family name. Noms de guerre were adopted for security reasons by members of World War II French resistance and Polish resistance . Such pseudonyms are often adopted by military special-forces soldiers, such as members of

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1760-490: A struggle for national liberation in a country under military occupation or totalitarian domination. Tactics of resistance movements against a constituted authority range from nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience , to guerrilla warfare and terrorism , or even conventional warfare if the resistance movement is powerful enough. Any government facing violent acts from a resistance movement usually condemns such acts as terrorism , even when such attacks target only

1840-440: A study of a Web dating service and a pseudonymous remailer , University of Cambridge researchers discovered that the systems used by these Web sites to protect user data could be easily compromised, even if the pseudonymous channel is protected by strong encryption. Typically, the protected pseudonymous channel exists within a broader framework in which multiple vulnerabilities exist. Pseudonym users should bear in mind that, given

1920-803: A writer of detective stories was with the publication, possibly in 1880, of Before the Bench: Sketches of Police Court Life (London, Diprose & Bateman). Posthumously, he was most famous for Passing English of the Victorian Era. A Dictionary of Heterodox English Slang and Phrase (London, Routledge, 1909), published shortly after his death. Pseudonym Pseudonyms include stage names , user names , ring names , pen names , aliases, superhero or villain identities and code names, gamer identifications, and regnal names of emperors, popes, and other monarchs. In some cases, it may also include nicknames . Historically, they have sometimes taken

2000-406: Is a name used by many different people to protect anonymity. It is a strategy that has been adopted by many unconnected radical groups and by cultural groups, where the construct of personal identity has been criticised. This has led to the idea of the "open pop star", such as Monty Cantsin . Pseudonyms and acronyms are often employed in medical research to protect subjects' identities through

2080-483: Is an officially recognized category by the Indian government covering those who took part in the country's independence movement ; people in this category (can also include dependant family members) get pensions and other benefits like special railway counters. People described as freedom fighters are often also called assassins , rebels , insurgents or terrorists . This leads to the aphorism "one man's terrorist

2160-615: Is another man's freedom fighter". The degree to which this occurs depends on a variety of factors specific to the struggle in which a given freedom fighter group is engaged. During the Cold War , the term freedom fighter was first used with reference to the Hungarian rebels in 1956. Ronald Reagan picked up the term to explain America's support of rebels in countries controlled by communist states or otherwise perceived to be under

2240-412: Is another term for those engaged in a struggle to achieve political freedom for themselves or obtain freedom for others. Though the literal meaning of the words could include "anyone who fights for the cause of freedom", in common use it may be restricted to those who are actively involved in an armed rebellion, rather than those who campaign for freedom by peaceful means, or those who fight violently for

2320-624: Is attributable in large measure to its nearly non-existent initial participation costs. People seeking privacy often use pseudonyms to make appointments and reservations. Those writing to advice columns in newspapers and magazines may use pseudonyms. Steve Wozniak used a pseudonym when attending the University of California, Berkeley after co-founding Apple Computer , because "[he] knew [he] wouldn't have time enough to be an A+ student." When used by an actor, musician, radio disc jockey, model, or other performer or "show business" personality

2400-689: Is categorized as "power". In fact, they believe that resistance has its own characteristics and spatialities. In Steve Pile's (1997) "Opposition, Political Identities and Spaces of Resistance", geographies of resistance show: That people are positioned differently in unequal and multiple power relationships, that more or less powerful people are active in the constitution of unfolding relationships of authority, meaning and identity, that these activities are contingent, ambiguous and awkwardly situated, but that resistance seeks to occupy, deploy and create alternative spatialities from those defined through oppression and exploitation. From this perspective, assumptions about

2480-621: Is known to system operators but is not publicly disclosed), and unlinkable pseudonyms (the link is not known to system operators and cannot be determined). For example, true anonymous remailer enables Internet users to establish unlinkable pseudonyms; those that employ non-public pseudonyms (such as the now-defunct Penet remailer ) are called pseudonymous remailers . The continuum of unlinkability can also be seen, in part, on Misplaced Pages. Some registered users make no attempt to disguise their real identities (for example, by placing their real name on their user page). The pseudonym of unregistered users

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2560-739: Is not always about the dominated versus the dominator, the exploited versus the exploiter, or the oppressed versus the oppressor. There are various forms of resistance for various reasons, which then can be, again, classified as violent and nonviolent resistance (and "other" which is unclear). Different geographical spaces can also make different forms of resistance possible or impossible and more effective or less effective. Furthermore, in order to understand any resistance – its capacity to achieve its objective effectively, its success or failure – we need to take closely into account many variables, such as political identities, cultural identities, class, race, gender and so on. The reason

2640-502: Is often taken for granted that resistance takes place where domination, power, or oppression occurs and so resistance is often understood as something that always opposes to power or domination. However, some scholars believe and argue that looking at resistance in relation to only power and domination does not provide a full understanding of the actual nature of resistance. Not all power, domination, or oppression leads to resistance, and not all cases of resistance are against or to oppose what

2720-481: Is that these variations can define the nature and outcome of resistance. Harvey (1993), who looked at resistance in relations to capitalist economic exploitation, took on a fire accident happened in the Imperial Foods chicken processing plant in Hamlet, North Carolina in 1991, in which 20 of 200 workers were killed and 56 were injured due to poor working conditions and protections. He compared this accident with

2800-453: Is the use of multiple names for the same data location. More sophisticated cryptographic systems, such as anonymous digital credentials , enable users to communicate pseudonymously ( i.e. , by identifying themselves by means of pseudonyms). In well-defined abuse cases, a designated authority may be able to revoke the pseudonyms and reveal the individuals' real identity. Use of pseudonyms is common among professional eSports players, despite

2880-506: Is their IP address , which can, in many cases, easily be linked to them. Other registered users prefer to remain anonymous, and do not disclose identifying information. However, in certain cases, Misplaced Pages's privacy policy permits system administrators to consult the server logs to determine the IP address, and perhaps the true name, of a registered user. It is possible, in theory, to create an unlinkable Misplaced Pages pseudonym by using an Open proxy ,

2960-712: Is uncertain, but the privacy risks are expected to grow with improved analytic techniques and text corpora . Authors may practice adversarial stylometry to resist such identification. Businesspersons of ethnic minorities in some parts of the world are sometimes advised by an employer to use a pseudonym that is common or acceptable in that area when conducting business, to overcome racial or religious bias. Criminals may use aliases, fictitious business names , and dummy corporations ( corporate shells ) to hide their identity, or to impersonate other persons or entities in order to commit fraud. Aliases and fictitious business names used for dummy corporations may become so complex that, in

3040-539: The American Civil Liberties Union believe that Internet users deserve stronger pseudonymity so that they can protect themselves against identity theft, illegal government surveillance, stalking, and other unwelcome consequences of Internet use (including unintentional disclosures of their personal information and doxing , as discussed in the next section). Their views are supported by laws in some nations (such as Canada) that guarantee citizens

3120-613: The Constance Kent case. With this as a clue, Forrester/Ware's first stories of the female detective can be found in a journal entitled Grave and Gay in summer 1862. The character predates the 1863/1864 appearance of W. S. Hayward's The Revelations of a Lady Detective although not that of Ruth Trail . In 1860 a novel, The Fortunes of the House of Pennyl. A Romance of England in the Last Century (Blackwood's London Library)

3200-886: The Eritrean People's Liberation Front , the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association in India and the National Resistance Army in Uganda, which were considered freedom fighters by supporters. However, a person who is campaigning for freedom through peaceful means may still be classed as a freedom fighter, though in common usage they are called political activists , as in the case of the Black Consciousness Movement . In India, "Freedom fighter"

3280-559: The Guinness Brewery . Satoshi Nakamoto is a pseudonym of a still unknown author or authors' group behind a white paper about bitcoin . In Ancien Régime France, a nom de guerre ( French pronunciation: [nɔ̃ də ɡɛʁ] , "war name") would be adopted by each new recruit (or assigned to them by the captain of their company) as they enlisted in the French army. These pseudonyms had an official character and were

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3360-456: The SAS and similar units of resistance fighters , terrorists, and guerrillas . This practice hides their identities and may protect their families from reprisals; it may also be a form of dissociation from domestic life. Some well-known men who adopted noms de guerre include Carlos, for Ilich Ramírez Sánchez ; Willy Brandt , Chancellor of West Germany ; and Subcomandante Marcos , spokesman of

3440-905: The Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN). During Lehi 's underground fight against the British in Mandatory Palestine , the organization's commander Yitzchak Shamir (later Prime Minister of Israel) adopted the nom de guerre "Michael", in honour of Ireland's Michael Collins . Pseudonym was also stylized as suedonim in a common misspelling of the original word so as to preserve the price of telegrams in World War I and II. Revolutionaries and resistance leaders, such as Lenin , Stalin , Trotsky , Golda Meir , Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque , and Josip Broz Tito , often adopted their noms de guerre as their proper names after

3520-713: The census , was a grocer and tea-dealer, and James Redding Ware was her assistant. By 1861, the household was no longer in place, and J. R. Ware was not readily identifiable in the census. But in 1865, James Redding Ware became a Freemason , at the Westbourne Lodge No. 733, and he was living in Peckham. He became a Junior Warden at the Urban Lodge, no. 1196, and by 1872 a Worshipful Master (WM). His detective works include: The Female Detective (c. 1863/1864), 'edited by A.F.'; Secret Service, or, Recollections of

3600-616: The laws of war in the form of a series of international treaties took place. In the Preamble to the 1899 Hague Convention II on Land War, the Martens Clause was introduced as a compromise wording for the dispute between the Great Powers who considered francs-tireurs to be unlawful combatants subject to execution on capture and smaller states who maintained that they should be considered lawful combatants. More recently

3680-419: The online disinhibition effect ) as opposed to being completely anonymous. In contrast, research by the blog comment hosting service Disqus found pseudonymous users contributed the "highest quantity and quality of comments", where "quality" is based on an aggregate of likes, replies, flags, spam reports, and comment deletions, and found that users trusted pseudonyms and real names equally. Researchers at

3760-666: The 1977 Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts , referred in Article 1. Paragraph 4 to armed conflicts "... in which peoples are fighting against colonial domination and alien occupation and against racist regimes..." This phraseology, according USA that refused to ratify the Protocol, contains many ambiguities that cloud

3840-554: The French-language phrase nom de plume (which in French literally means "pen name"). The concept of pseudonymity has a long history. In ancient literature it was common to write in the name of a famous person, not for concealment or with any intention of deceit; in the New Testament, the second letter of Peter is probably such. A more modern example is all of The Federalist Papers , which were signed by Publius,

3920-462: The Internet, nobody knows that yesterday you were a dog, and therefore should be in the doghouse today." Users of Internet communities who have been banned only to return with new identities are called sock puppets . Whitewashing is one specific form of a Sybil attack on distributed systems. The social cost of cheaply discarded pseudonyms is that experienced users lose confidence in new users, and may subject new users to abuse until they establish

4000-509: The KKK, wrote Western books under a fictional Cherokee persona to imply legitimacy and conceal his history. A famous case in French literature was Romain Gary . Already a well-known writer, he started publishing books as Émile Ajar to test whether his new books would be well received on their own merits, without the aid of his established reputation. They were: Émile Ajar, like Romain Gary before him,

4080-817: The University of Cambridge showed that pseudonymous comments tended to be more substantive and engaged with other users in explanations, justifications, and chains of argument, and less likely to use insults, than either fully anonymous or real name comments. Proposals have been made to raise the costs of obtaining new identities, such as by charging a small fee or requiring e-mail confirmation. Academic research has proposed cryptographic methods to pseudonymize social media identities or government-issued identities, to accrue and use anonymous reputation in online forums, or to obtain one-per-person and hence less readily-discardable pseudonyms periodically at physical-world pseudonym parties . Others point out that Misplaced Pages's success

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4160-623: The author's true identity being discovered, as with Elena Ferrante and Torsten Krol . Joanne Rowling published the Harry Potter series as J. K. Rowling. Rowling also published the Cormoran Strike series of detective novels including The Cuckoo's Calling under the pseudonym Robert Galbraith. Winston Churchill wrote as Winston S. Churchill (from his full surname Spencer Churchill which he did not otherwise use) in an attempt to avoid confusion with an American novelist of

4240-631: The books related to people of their neighbourhood. Anne Brontë 's The Tenant of Wildfell Hall (1848) was published under the name Acton Bell, while Charlotte Brontë used the name Currer Bell for Jane Eyre (1847) and Shirley (1849), and Emily Brontë adopted Ellis Bell as cover for Wuthering Heights (1847). Other examples from the nineteenth-century are novelist Mary Ann Evans ( George Eliot ) and French writer Amandine Aurore Lucile Dupin ( George Sand ). Pseudonyms may also be used due to cultural or organization or political prejudices. Similarly, some 20th- and 21st-century male romance novelists –

4320-543: The co-authors of a work, such as Carolyn Keene , Erin Hunter , Ellery Queen , Nicolas Bourbaki , or James S. A. Corey . The term pseudonym is derived from the Greek word " ψευδώνυμον " ( pseudṓnymon ), literally "false name", from ψεῦδος ( pseûdos ) 'lie, falsehood' and ὄνομα ( ónoma ) "name". The term alias is a Latin adverb meaning "at another time, elsewhere". Sometimes people change their names in such

4400-469: The current state of Web security engineering, their true names may be revealed at any time. Pseudonymity is an important component of the reputation systems found in online auction services (such as eBay ), discussion sites (such as Slashdot ), and collaborative knowledge development sites (such as Misplaced Pages ). A pseudonymous user who has acquired a favorable reputation gains the trust of other users. When users believe that they will be rewarded by acquiring

4480-450: The domination/resistance couplet become questionable. We can better understand resistance by accounting different perspectives and by breaking the presumptions that resistance is always against power. In fact, resistance should be understood not only in relations to domination and authority, but also through other experiences, such as "desire and anger, capacity and ability, happiness and fear, dreaming and forgetting", meaning that resistance

4560-616: The existing cultural norms in many societies. Resistance can also be mapped in various scales ranging from local to national to regional and to global spaces. We can look at a big-scale resistance movement such as anti-globalization movement that tries to resist the global trend of capitalist economic system. Or we can look at the internal resistance to apartheid , which took place at national level. Most, if not all, social movements can be considered as some forms of resistance. Not all resistance takes place in physical spaces or geographies but in "other spaces" as well. Some resistance happens in

4640-425: The exploitation of the capitalist economic systems and the capitals, while other resistance takes place against the state or authority in power. Moreover, some other resistance takes place in order to resist or question the social/culture norms or discourse or in order to challenge a global trend called " globalization ". For example, LGBT social movements is an example of resistance that challenges and tries to reform

4720-420: The fact that many professional games are played on LAN . Pseudonymity has become an important phenomenon on the Internet and other computer networks. In computer networks, pseudonyms possess varying degrees of anonymity, ranging from highly linkable public pseudonyms (the link between the pseudonym and a human being is publicly known or easy to discover), potentially linkable non-public pseudonyms (the link

4800-503: The form of Protest Art or in the form of music. Music can be used and has been used as a tool or space to resist certain oppression or domination. Gray-Rosendale, L. (2001) put it this way: Music acts as a rhetorical force that sanctions the construction of the boys' new black urban subjectivities that both challenge urban experience and yet give voice to it...music contributes a way to avoid physical and psychological immobility and to resist economic and cultural adaptation...and challenges

4880-728: The form of anagrams , Graecisms, and Latinisations . Pseudonyms should not be confused with new names that replace old ones and become the individual's full-time name. Pseudonyms are "part-time" names, used only in certain contexts: to provide a more clear-cut separation between one's private and professional lives, to showcase or enhance a particular persona, or to hide an individual's real identity, as with writers' pen names, graffiti artists' tags, resistance fighters' or terrorists' noms de guerre , computer hackers ' handles , and other online identities for services such as social media , online gaming , and internet forums . Actors, musicians, and other performers sometimes use stage names for

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4960-531: The form of a teknonym , either literal or figurative. Such war names have also been used in Africa. Part of the molding of child soldiers has included giving them such names. They were also used by fighters in the People's Liberation Army of Namibia , with some fighters retaining these names as their permanent names. Individuals using a computer online may adopt or be required to use a form of pseudonym known as

5040-657: The freedom of others outside the context of an uprising (though this title may be applied in its literal sense) Generally speaking, freedom fighters are people who use physical force to cause a change in the political and or social order. Notable examples include uMkhonto we Sizwe in South Africa, the Sons of Liberty in the American Revolution , the Irish Republican Army in Ireland and Northern Ireland ,

5120-860: The influence of the Soviet Union, including the Contras in Nicaragua , UNITA in Angola and the multi-factional mujahideen in Afghanistan . In the media, the BBC tries to avoid the phrases "terrorist" or "freedom fighter", except in attributed quotes, in favor of more neutral terms such as " militant ", " guerrilla ", " assassin ", " insurgent ", " rebel ", " paramilitary ", or " militia ". Partisans often use captured weapons taken from their enemies, or weapons that have been stolen or smuggled in. During

5200-542: The issue of who is or is not a legitimate combatant: ultimately, in US Government opinion the distinction is just a political judgment. Some definitions of resistance movement have proved controversial. Hence depending on the perspective of a state's government, a resistance movement may or may not be labelled a terrorist group based on whether the members of a resistance movement are considered lawful or unlawful combatants and whether they are recognized as having

5280-621: The military or security forces. Resistance during World War II was mainly dedicated to fighting the Axis occupiers. Germany itself also had an anti-Nazi Hitler, German resistance movement in this period. Although the United Kingdom did not suffer invasion in World War II, preparations were made for a British resistance movement in the event of a German invasion (see Auxiliary Units ). When geographies of resistance are discussed, it

5360-404: The papers. There are also examples of modern politicians and high-ranking bureaucrats writing under pseudonyms. Some female authors have used male pen names, in particular in the 19th century, when writing was a highly male-dominated profession. The Brontë sisters used pen names for their early work, so as not to reveal their gender (see below) and so that local residents would not suspect that

5440-500: The perspective of the oppressed; second, a hierarchy of the oppressions has to be defined…..; third, political actions need to be understood and undertaken in terms of their situatedness and position in dynamic power relations: and finally, an epistemology capable of telling the difference between different differences has to be developed. There are many forms of resistance in relations to different power dominations and actors. Some resistance takes place in order to oppose, change, or reform

5520-403: The physical spaces. In other cases, people sometimes simply resist to certain ideology, belief, or culture norms within their minds. These kinds of resistance are less visible but very fundamental parts of all forms of resistance. On the lawfulness of armed resistance movements in international law , there has been a dispute between states since at least 1899, when the first major codification of

5600-498: The policies of a government or occupying power. This may be accomplished through violent or non-violent means. In this view, a resistance movement is specifically limited to changing the nature of current power, not to overthrow it; and the correct military term for removing or overthrowing a government is an insurgency . However, in reality many resistance movements have aimed to displace a particular ruler, especially if that ruler has gained or retained power illegally. Freedom fighter

5680-432: The predecessor of identification numbers : soldiers were identified by their first names, their family names, and their noms de guerre (e. g. Jean Amarault dit Lafidélité ). These pseudonyms were usually related to the soldier's place of origin (e. g. Jean Deslandes dit Champigny , for a soldier coming from a town named Champigny ), or to a particular physical or personal trait (e. g. Antoine Bonnet dit Prettaboire , for

5760-614: The romance writer Nora Roberts writes mystery novels under the name J. D. Robb . In some cases, an author may become better known by his pen name than their real name. Some famous examples of that include Samuel Clemens, writing as Mark Twain , Theodor Geisel, better known as Dr. Seuss , and Eric Arthur Blair ( George Orwell ). The British mathematician Charles Dodgson wrote fantasy novels as Lewis Carroll and mathematical treatises under his own name. Some authors, such as Harold Robbins , use several literary pseudonyms. Some pen names have been used for long periods, even decades, without

5840-478: The same name . The attempt was not wholly successful – the two are still sometimes confused by booksellers. A pen name may be used specifically to hide the identity of the author, as with exposé books about espionage or crime, or explicit erotic fiction. Erwin von Busse used a pseudonym when he published short stories about sexually charged encounters between men in Germany in 1920. Some prolific authors adopt

5920-700: The social injustice prevalent within the Northern economy. In the age of advanced IT and mass consumption of social media , resistance can also occur in the cyberspace.The Aboriginal Health and Medical Research Council of NSW's Tobacco Resistance and Control (A-TRAC) team created a Facebook page to help promote anti-smoking campaign and rise awareness for its members. Sometimes, resistance takes place in people's minds and ideology or in people's "inner spaces". For example, sometimes people have to struggle within or fight against their inner spaces, with their consciousness and, sometimes, with their fear before they can resist in

6000-588: The struggle. George Grivas , the Greek-Cypriot EOKA militant, adopted the nom de guerre Digenis (Διγενής). In the French Foreign Legion , recruits can adopt a pseudonym to break with their past lives. Mercenaries have long used "noms de guerre", sometimes even multiple identities, depending on the country, conflict, and circumstance. Some of the most familiar noms de guerre today are the kunya used by Islamic mujahideen . These take

6080-819: The term "resistance" to designate a movement meeting the definition prior to World War II might be considered by some to be an anachronism . However, such movements existed prior to World War II (albeit often called by different names), and there have been many after it – for example in struggles against colonialism and foreign military occupations. "Resistance" has become a generic term that has been used to designate underground resistance movements in any country. Resistance movements can include any irregular armed force that rises up against an enforced or established authority, government , or administration . This frequently includes groups that consider themselves to be resisting tyranny or dictatorship . Some resistance movements are underground organizations engaged in

6160-531: The theatre manager, as the villain. He had now become a jobbing writer for hire, producing books on chess; a book on the Isle of Wight with photographs by William Russell Sedgefield and Frank Mason Good ; a volume of The Life and Speeches of His Royal Highness Prince Leopold ; Mistaken Identities. Celebrated Cases of Undeserved Suffering, Self-Deception, and Wilful Imposture ; as well as writing extensively for magazines. His only seeming connection to his early days as

6240-459: The words of The Washington Post , "getting to the truth requires a walk down a bizarre labyrinth" and multiple government agencies may become involved to uncover the truth. Giving a false name to a law enforcement officer is a crime in many jurisdictions; see identity fraud . A pen name is a pseudonym (sometimes a particular form of the real name) adopted by an author (or on the author's behalf by their publishers). English usage also includes

6320-436: Was awarded the prestigious Prix Goncourt by a jury unaware that they were the same person. Similarly, TV actor Ronnie Barker submitted comedy material under the name Gerald Wiley. A collective pseudonym may represent an entire publishing house, or any contributor to a long-running series, especially with juvenile literature. Examples include Watty Piper , Victor Appleton , Erin Hunter , and Kamiru M. Xhan. Another use of

6400-565: Was published, with illustrations by Phiz , under the name J. Redding Ware. By 1868, he was a contributor to the Boy's Own Paper , the series of penny-bloods owned by Edwin Brett , although no particular work has been attributed to him. He also contributed to Bow Bells Magazine . Ware wrote The Death Trap , a play staged at the Grecian Saloon, City Road, Shoreditch , with George Conquest,

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