76-489: Some 169 (see text) Annona or Anona (from Taíno annon ) is a genus of flowering plants in the pawpaw / sugar apple family, Annonaceae . It is the second largest genus in the family after Guatteria , containing approximately 166 species of mostly Neotropical and Afrotropical trees and shrubs . The generic name derives from anón , a Hispaniolan Taíno word for the fruit. Paleoethnobotanical studies have dated Annona exploitation and cultivation in
152-489: A coleoptile that forms the first leaf while the radicle is covered with a coleorhiza that connects to the primary root and adventitious roots form the sides. Here the hypocotyl is a rudimentary axis between radicle and plumule. The seeds of corn are constructed with these structures; pericarp, scutellum (single large cotyledon) that absorbs nutrients from the endosperm, plumule, radicle, coleoptile, and coleorhiza – these last two structures are sheath-like and enclose
228-422: A curved megagametophyte often giving the seed a tight "C" shape. The last ovule shape is called amphitropous , where the ovule is partly inverted and turned back 90 degrees on its stalk (the funicle or funiculus ). In the majority of flowering plants, the zygote's first division is transversely oriented in regards to the long axis, and this establishes the polarity of the embryo. The upper or chalazal pole becomes
304-431: A different vowel), and to-, tu- 'her'. Recorded conjugated verbs include daka ("I am"), waibá ("we go" or "let us go"), warikẽ ("we see"), kãma ("hear", imperative), ahiyakawo ("speak to us") and makabuka ("it is not important"). Verb-designating affixes were a-, ka-, -a, -ka, -nV in which "V" was an unknown or changeable vowel. This suggests that, like many other Arawakan languages, verbal conjugation for
380-411: A few will end in a favorable place for growth. Herbaceous perennials and woody plants often have larger seeds; they can produce seeds over many years, and larger seeds have more energy reserves for germination and seedling growth and produce larger, more established seedlings after germination. Seeds serve several functions for the plants that produce them. Key among these functions are nourishment of
456-427: A hardened fruit layer (the endocarp ) fused to and surrounding the actual seed. Nuts are the one-seeded, hard-shelled fruit of some plants with an indehiscent seed, such as an acorn or hazelnut . The first land plants evolved around 468 million years ago, and reproduced using spores. The earliest seed bearing plants to appear were the gymnosperms , which have no ovaries to contain the seeds. They arose during
532-415: A location and be there at a time favorable for germination and growth. When the fruits open and release their seeds in a regular way, it is called dehiscent , which is often distinctive for related groups of plants; these fruits include capsules , follicles , legumes , silicles and siliques . When fruits do not open and release their seeds in a regular fashion, they are called indehiscent, which include
608-416: A seed coat, a protective outer covering called a testa. More generally, the term "seed" means anything that can be sown , which may include seed and husk or tuber . Seeds are the product of the ripened ovule , after the embryo sac is fertilized by sperm from pollen , forming a zygote . The embryo within a seed develops from the zygote and grows within the mother plant to a certain size before growth
684-547: A species in this genus ( Annona muricata ) was published in 2021. The earliest fossils have been found in the Lance Formation dating to the Late Cretaceous. Annona species are taprooted , evergreen or semi deciduous , tropical trees or shrubs . The plants typically grow in areas where air temperature does not drop below 28 °F (−2 °C), especially Cuba , Jamaica , Central America , India
760-550: A subject resembled the possessive prefixes on nouns. The negating prefix was ma- and the attributive prefix was ka- . Hence makabuka meant "it is not important". The buka element has been compared to the Kalinago suffix -bouca which designates the past tense. Hence, makabuka can be interpreted as meaning "it has no past". However, the word can also be compared to the Kalinago verb aboúcacha meaning "to scare". This verb
836-435: A supply of nutrients for the embryo in most monocotyledons and the endospermic dicotyledons. Seeds have been considered to occur in many structurally different types (Martin 1946). These are based on a number of criteria, of which the dominant one is the embryo-to-seed size ratio. This reflects the degree to which the developing cotyledons absorb the nutrients of the endosperm, and thus obliterate it. Six types occur amongst
SECTION 10
#1732776643559912-550: A tegmen from the inner integument while unitegmic seeds have only one integument. Usually, parts of the testa or tegmen form a hard protective mechanical layer. The mechanical layer may prevent water penetration and germination. Amongst the barriers may be the presence of lignified sclereids . The outer integument has a number of layers, generally between four and eight organised into three layers: (a) outer epidermis, (b) outer pigmented zone of two to five layers containing tannin and starch, and (c) inner epidermis. The endotegmen
988-405: A way for the species to survive dry or cold seasons. Ephemeral plants are usually annuals that can go from seed to seed in as few as six weeks. Seed germination is a process by which a seed embryo develops into a seedling. It involves the reactivation of the metabolic pathways that lead to growth and the emergence of the radicle or seed root and plumule or shoot. The emergence of the seedling above
1064-820: Is an extinct Arawakan language that was spoken by the Taíno people of the Caribbean . At the time of Spanish contact , it was the most common language throughout the Caribbean. Classic Taíno (Taíno proper) was the native language of the Taíno tribes living in the Leeward Islands of the Lesser Antilles , Puerto Rico , the Turks and Caicos Islands , most of Hispaniola , and eastern Cuba . The Ciboney dialect
1140-509: Is at a suitable temperature with proper soil moisture. This true dormancy or innate dormancy is therefore caused by conditions within the seed that prevent germination. Thus dormancy is a state of the seed, not of the environment. Induced dormancy, enforced dormancy or seed quiescence occurs when a seed fails to germinate because the external environmental conditions are inappropriate for germination, mostly in response to conditions being too dark or light, too cold or hot, or too dry. Seed dormancy
1216-461: Is believed to have been extinct within 100 years of contact, but possibly continued to be spoken in isolated pockets in the Caribbean until the 19th century. As the first Indigenous language encountered by Europeans in the Americas, it was a major source of new words borrowed into European languages. Granberry & Vescelius (2004) distinguish two dialects, one on Hispaniola and further east, and
1292-481: Is caused by conditions outside the embryo, including: Endogenous dormancy is caused by conditions within the embryo itself, including: The following types of seed dormancy do not involve seed dormancy, strictly speaking, as lack of germination is prevented by the environment, not by characteristics of the seed itself (see Germination ): Not all seeds undergo a period of dormancy. Seeds of some mangroves are viviparous; they begin to germinate while still attached to
1368-402: Is derived from the inner epidermis of the inner integument, the exotegmen from the outer surface of the inner integument. The endotesta is derived from the inner epidermis of the outer integument, and the outer layer of the testa from the outer surface of the outer integument is referred to as the exotesta . If the exotesta is also the mechanical layer, this is called an exotestal seed, but if
1444-581: Is essentially unattested, but colonial sources suggest it was very similar to Classic Taíno, and was spoken in the westernmost areas of Hispaniola, the Bahamas , Jamaica , and most of Cuba . By the late 15th century, Taíno had displaced earlier languages, except in western Cuba and pockets in Hispaniola. As the Taíno culture declined during Spanish colonization, the language was replaced by Spanish and other European languages, such as English and French. It
1520-404: Is halted. The formation of the seed is the defining part of the process of reproduction in seed plants ( spermatophytes ). Other plants such as ferns , mosses and liverworts , do not have seeds and use water-dependent means to propagate themselves. Seed plants now dominate biological niches on land, from forests to grasslands both in hot and cold climates . In the flowering plants ,
1596-444: Is not the same as seed persistence in the soil or on the plant, though even in scientific publications dormancy and persistence are often confused or used as synonyms. Often, seed dormancy is divided into four major categories: exogenous; endogenous; combinational; and secondary. A more recent system distinguishes five classes: morphological, physiological, morphophysiological, physical, and combinational dormancy. Exogenous dormancy
SECTION 20
#17327766435591672-535: Is protection against disease. Seeds protect and nourish the embryo or young plant. They usually give a seedling a faster start than a sporeling from a spore, because of the larger food reserves in the seed and the multicellularity of the enclosed embryo. Unlike animals, plants are limited in their ability to seek out favorable conditions for life and growth. As a result, plants have evolved many ways to disperse their offspring by dispersing their seeds (see also vegetative reproduction ). A seed must somehow "arrive" at
1748-1166: Is shared in various Caribbean Arawakan languages such as Lokono ( bokaüya 'to scare, frighten') and Parauhano ( apüüta 'to scare'). In this case makabuka would mean "it does not frighten [me]". Masculine gender was indicated by the noun suffix -(e)l . There is no known corresponding feminine suffix. Taíno borrowed words from Spanish, adapting them to its phonology. These include isúbara ("sword", from espada ), isíbuse ("mirror", from espejo ) and Dios ( God in Christianity , from Dios ). English words derived from Taíno include: barbecue , caiman , canoe , cassava , cay , guava , hammock , hurricane , hutia , iguana , macana , maize , manatee , mangrove , maroon , potato , savanna , and tobacco . Taíno loanwords in Spanish include: agutí , ají , auyama , batata , cacique , caoba , guanabana , guaraguao , jaiba , loro , maní , maguey (also rendered magüey ), múcaro , nigua , querequequé , tiburón , and tuna , as well as
1824-446: Is the ability of the embryo to germinate and is affected by a number of different conditions. Some plants do not produce seeds that have functional complete embryos, or the seed may have no embryo at all, often called empty seeds. Predators and pathogens can damage or kill the seed while it is still in the fruit or after it is dispersed. Environmental conditions like flooding or heat can kill the seed before or during germination. The age of
1900-411: Is then aborted or absorbed during early development. The seed is composed of the embryo (the result of fertilization) and tissue from the mother plant, which also form a cone around the seed in coniferous plants such as pine and spruce . Seeds are very diverse, and as such there are many terms are used to describe them. A typical seed includes two basic parts: In addition, the endosperm forms
1976-419: Is usually triploid , and is rich in oil or starch , and protein . In gymnosperms, such as conifers , the food storage tissue (also called endosperm) is part of the female gametophyte , a haploid tissue. The endosperm is surrounded by the aleurone layer (peripheral endosperm), filled with proteinaceous aleurone grains. Originally, by analogy with the animal ovum , the outer nucellus layer ( perisperm )
2052-860: The Philippines and Calabria (southern Italy). However, they have also been known to grow in certain parts of the Andes mountains in South America and in Florida . The woody trunks have thin bark that has broad and shallow depressions or fissures which join together and are scaly, giving rise to slender, stiff, cylindrical, and tapering shoots with raised pores and naked buds. Leaf blades can be leathery or thin and rather soft or pliable, bald or hairy. The flowering stalks rise from axils, or occasionally from axillary buds on main stems or older stems, or as solitary flowers or small bundles of flowers. Usually,
2128-487: The Yautepec River region of Medicoto to approximately 1000 BC. Plants of the genus have several common names, including sugar-apple , soursop , anona, chrimoya and guanabana. Currently, seven Annona species ( A. cherimola , A. muricata , A. squamosa , A. reticulata , A. senegalensis , A. scleroderma , A. purpurea ) and one hybrid (the atemoya ) are cultivated for domestic or commercial use, mostly for
2204-417: The cone scales as they develop in some species of conifer . Angiosperm (flowering plants) seeds consist of three genetically distinct constituents: (1) the embryo formed from the zygote, (2) the endosperm, which is normally triploid, (3) the seed coat from tissue derived from the maternal tissue of the ovule. In angiosperms, the process of seed development begins with double fertilization , which involves
2280-486: The diaspora . In 2023, activist Jorge Baracutay Estevez and the Higuayagua Taino cultural organization he chairs (as " kasike ") with help of linguist Alexandra Aikhenvald released Hiwatahia: Hekexi Taino Language Reconstruction , a formatted 20,000 word dictionary basing on languages of the wider Ta-Maipurean branch. Seed In botany , a seed is a plant embryo and nutrient reserve enclosed in
2356-458: The edible and nutritious fruits; several others such as A. crassiflora and A. salzmannii also produce edible fruits. Many of the species are used in traditional medicines for the treatment of a variety of diseases, though their efficacy has yet to be validated scientifically. Several annonaceous species have been found to contain acetogenins , a class of natural compounds with a wide variety of biological activities. The first complete genome for
Annona - Misplaced Pages Continue
2432-412: The embryo , dispersal to a new location, and dormancy during unfavorable conditions. Seeds fundamentally are means of reproduction, and most seeds are the product of sexual reproduction which produces a remixing of genetic material and phenotype variability on which natural selection acts. Plant seeds hold endophytic microorganisms that can perform various functions, the most important of which
2508-424: The legumes (such as beans and peas ), trees such as the oak and walnut , vegetables such as squash and radish , and sunflowers . According to Bewley and Black (1978), Brazil nut storage is in hypocotyl and this place of storage is uncommon among seeds. All gymnosperm seeds are albuminous. The seed coat develops from the maternal tissue, the integuments , originally surrounding the ovule. The seed coat in
2584-502: The base, are partially united to various degrees with a distinct stigma , with one or two ovules per pistil; the style and stigma are club-shaped or narrowly conic. One fleshy, ovate to spherical fruit is produced per flower. Each fruit consists of many individual small fruits or syncarps, with one syncarp and seed per pistil. Seeds are bean -like with tough coats; the seed kernels are toxic. Pollination occurs via Dynastid scarab beetles , which appear to be basic generalists within
2660-494: The beginning of a word and the /ɾ/ realization occurred between vowels. Some Spanish writers used the letter ⟨x⟩ in their transcriptions, which could represent /h/ , /s/ or /ʃ/ in the Spanish orthography of their day. A distinction between /ɛ/ and /e/ is suggested by Spanish transcriptions of e vs ei/ey , as in ceiba "ceiba". The /e/ is written ei or final é in modern reconstructions. There
2736-421: The cause of a Parkinson-like neurodegenerative disease. The only group of people known to be affected by this disease live on the Caribbean island of Guadeloupe and the problem presumably occurs with the consumption of plants containing annonacin. The disorder is a so-called tauopathy associated with a pathologic accumulation of tau protein in the brain. Experimental results published in 2007 demonstrated for
2812-636: The cells are filled with starch , as for instance cereal grains , or not (non-farinaceous). The endosperm may also be referred to as "fleshy" or "cartilaginous" with thicker soft cells such as coconut , but may also be oily as in Ricinus (castor oil), Croton and Poppy . The endosperm is called "horny" when the cell walls are thicker such as date and coffee , or "ruminated" if mottled, as in nutmeg , palms and Annonaceae . In most monocotyledons (such as grasses and palms ) and some ( endospermic or albuminous ) dicotyledons (such as castor beans )
2888-405: The cells of the outer epidermis enlarge radially and their walls thicken, with nucleus and cytoplasm compressed into the outer layer. these cells which are broader on their inner surface are called palisade cells. In the inner epidermis, the cells also enlarge radially with plate like thickening of the walls. The mature inner integument has a palisade layer, a pigmented zone with 15–20 layers, while
2964-407: The early 19th century, influential works being: Angiosperm seeds are "enclosed seeds", produced in a hard or fleshy structure called a fruit that encloses them for protection. Some fruits have layers of both hard and fleshy material. In gymnosperms, no special structure develops to enclose the seeds, which begin their development "naked" on the bracts of cones. However, the seeds do become covered by
3040-440: The elaiosomes are eaten. The remainder of the seed, which is hard and inedible to the ants, then germinates either within the nest or at a removal site where the seed has been discarded by the ants. This dispersal relationship is an example of mutualism , since the plants depend upon the ants to disperse seeds, while the ants depend upon the plants seeds for food. As a result, a drop in numbers of one partner can reduce success of
3116-429: The embryo is embedded in the endosperm (and nucellus), which the seedling will use upon germination . In the non-endospermic dicotyledons the endosperm is absorbed by the embryo as the latter grows within the developing seed, and the cotyledons of the embryo become filled with stored food. At maturity, seeds of these species have no endosperm and are also referred to as exalbuminous seeds. The exalbuminous seeds include
Annona - Misplaced Pages Continue
3192-452: The fertilised ovule, an immature plant from which a new plant will grow under proper conditions. The embryo has one cotyledon or seed leaf in monocotyledons , two cotyledons in almost all dicotyledons and two or more in gymnosperms. In the fruit of grains (caryopses) the single monocotyledon is shield shaped and hence called a scutellum . The scutellum is pressed closely against the endosperm from which it absorbs food and passes it to
3268-645: The first few years of their lives deriving energy from the fungi and do not produce green leaves. At up to 55 pounds (25 kilograms) the largest seed is the coco de mer (Lodoicea maldivica). This indicates a 25 Billion fold difference in seed weight. Plants that produce smaller seeds can generate many more seeds per flower, while plants with larger seeds invest more resources into those seeds and normally produce fewer seeds. Small seeds are quicker to ripen and can be dispersed sooner, so autumn all blooming plants often have small seeds. Many annual plants produce great quantities of smaller seeds; this helps to ensure at least
3344-466: The first time that the plant neurotoxin annonacin is responsible for this accumulation. There are 169 accepted Annona species, as of April 2021, according to Plants of the World Online . Annona species are generally disease-free. They are susceptible to some fungi and wilt. Ants may also be a problem, since they promote mealybugs on the fruit. Ta%C3%ADno language Taíno
3420-507: The fruits achenes , caryopses , nuts , samaras , and utricles . Other seeds are enclosed in fruit structures that aid wind dispersal in similar ways: Myrmecochory is the dispersal of seeds by ants . Foraging ants disperse seeds which have appendages called elaiosomes (e.g. bloodroot , trilliums , acacias , and many species of Proteaceae ). Elaiosomes are soft, fleshy structures that contain nutrients for animals that eat them. The ants carry such seeds back to their nest, where
3496-408: The fusion of two male gametes with the egg cell and the central cell to form the primary endosperm and the zygote. Right after fertilization, the zygote is mostly inactive, but the primary endosperm divides rapidly to form the endosperm tissue. This tissue becomes the food the young plant will consume until the roots have developed after germination . After fertilization, the ovules develop into
3572-416: The genus Annona . Those species of Annona which are more morphologically derived, as well as all Rollinia spp., possess reduced floral chambers and attract small beetles such as Nitidulidae or Staphylinidae . The compound annonacin and dozens of other acetogenins contained in the seeds and fruit of some members of Annonaceae such as Annona muricata (soursop) are neurotoxins and seem to be
3648-446: The grasses, are not distinct structures, but are fused with the fruit wall to form a pericarp .) The testae of both monocots and dicots are often marked with patterns and textured markings, or have wings or tufts of hair. When the seed coat forms from only one layer, it is also called the testa, though not all such testae are homologous from one species to the next. The funiculus abscisses (detaches at fixed point – abscission zone),
3724-431: The growing parts. Embryo descriptors include small, straight, bent, curved, and curled. Within the seed, there usually is a store of nutrients for the seedling that will grow from the embryo. The form of the stored nutrition varies depending on the kind of plant. In angiosperms, the stored food begins as a tissue called the endosperm , which is derived from the mother plant and the pollen via double fertilization . It
3800-434: The inner epidermis may remain a single layer, it may also divide to produce two to three layers and accumulates starch, and is referred to as the colourless layer. By contrast, the outer epidermis becomes tanniferous . The inner integument may consist of eight to fifteen layers. As the cells enlarge, and starch is deposited in the outer layers of the pigmented zone below the outer epidermis, this zone begins to lignify, while
3876-444: The innermost layer is known as the fringe layer. In gymnosperms, which do not form ovaries, the ovules and hence the seeds are exposed. This is the basis for their nomenclature – naked seeded plants. Two sperm cells transferred from the pollen do not develop the seed by double fertilization, but one sperm nucleus unites with the egg nucleus and the other sperm is not used. Sometimes each sperm fertilizes an egg cell and one zygote
SECTION 50
#17327766435593952-478: The late Devonian period (416 million to 358 million years ago). From these early gymnosperms, seed ferns evolved during the Carboniferous period (359 to 299 million years ago); they had ovules that were borne in a cupule, which consisted of groups of enclosing branches likely used to protect the developing seed. Published literature about seed storage, viability and its hygrometric dependence began in
4028-424: The latter example these hairs are the source of the textile crop cotton . Other seed appendages include the raphe (a ridge), wings, caruncles (a soft spongy outgrowth from the outer integument in the vicinity of the micropyle), spines, or tubercles. A scar also may remain on the seed coat, called the hilum , where the seed was attached to the ovary wall by the funicle. Just below it is a small pore, representing
4104-402: The main area of growth of the embryo, while the lower or micropylar pole produces the stalk-like suspensor that attaches to the micropyle. The suspensor absorbs and manufactures nutrients from the endosperm that are used during the embryo's growth. The main components of the embryo are: Monocotyledonous plants have two additional structures in the form of sheaths. The plumule is covered with
4180-577: The masculine gender, as in warokoel "our grandfather". Some words are recorded as ending in x , which may have represented a word-final /h/ sound. In general, stress was predictable and fell on the penultimate syllable of a word, unless the word ended in /e/ , /i/ or a nasal vowel, in which case it fell on the final syllable. Taíno is not well attested. However, from what can be gathered, nouns appear to have had noun-class suffixes, as in other Arawakan languages. Attested Taíno possessive prefixes are da- 'my', wa- 'our', li- 'his' (sometimes with
4256-422: The mature seed can be a paper-thin layer (e.g. peanut ) or something more substantial (e.g. thick and hard in honey locust and coconut ), or fleshy as in the sarcotesta of pomegranate . The seed coat helps protect the embryo from mechanical injury, predators, and drying out. Depending on its development, the seed coat is either bitegmic or unitegmic . Bitegmic seeds form a testa from the outer integument and
4332-514: The mechanical layer is the endotegmen, then the seed is endotestal. The exotesta may consist of one or more rows of cells that are elongated and pallisade like (e.g. Fabaceae ), hence 'palisade exotesta'. In addition to the three basic seed parts, some seeds have an appendage, an aril , a fleshy outgrowth of the funicle ( funiculus ), (as in yew and nutmeg ) or an oily appendage, an elaiosome (as in Corydalis ), or hairs (trichomes). In
4408-456: The micropyle of the ovule. Seeds are very diverse in size. The dust-like orchid seeds are the smallest, with about one million seeds per gram; they are often embryonic seeds with immature embryos and no significant energy reserves. Orchids and a few other groups of plants are mycoheterotrophs which depend on mycorrhizal fungi for nutrition during germination and the early growth of the seedling. Some terrestrial orchid seedlings, in fact, spend
4484-399: The monocotyledons, ten in the dicotyledons, and two in the gymnosperms (linear and spatulate). This classification is based on three characteristics: embryo morphology, amount of endosperm and the position of the embryo relative to the endosperm. In endospermic seeds, there are two distinct regions inside the seed coat, an upper and larger endosperm and a lower smaller embryo. The embryo is
4560-403: The optimal conditions for survival of the resulting seedling; the second is spreading germination of a batch of seeds over time so a catastrophe (e.g. late frosts, drought, herbivory ) does not result in the death of all offspring of a plant ( bet-hedging ). Seed dormancy is defined as a seed failing to germinate under environmental conditions optimal for germination, normally when the environment
4636-498: The other on Hispaniola and further west. Columbus wrote that "...from Bahama to Cuba, Boriquen to Jamaica, the same language was spoken in various slight dialects, but understood by all." The Taíno language was not written. The Taínos used petroglyphs , but there has been little research in the area. The following phonemes are reconstructed from Spanish records: There was also a flap [ ɾ ] , which appears to have been an allophone of /d/ . The /d/ realization occurred at
SECTION 60
#17327766435594712-477: The other. In South Africa , the Argentine ant ( Linepithema humile ) has invaded and displaced native species of ants. Unlike the native ant species, Argentine ants do not collect the seeds of Mimetes cucullatus or eat the elaiosomes. In areas where these ants have invaded, the numbers of Mimetes seedlings have dropped. Seed dormancy has two main functions: the first is synchronizing germination with
4788-415: The ovary ripens into a fruit which contains the seed and serves to disseminate it. Many structures commonly referred to as "seeds" are actually dry fruits. Sunflower seeds are sometimes sold commercially while still enclosed within the hard wall of the fruit, which must be split open to reach the seed. Different groups of plants have other modifications, the so-called stone fruits (such as the peach ) have
4864-410: The parent. The large, heavy root allows the seed to penetrate into the ground when it falls. Many garden plant seeds will germinate readily as soon as they have water and are warm enough; though their wild ancestors may have had dormancy, these cultivated plants lack it. After many generations of selective pressure by plant breeders and gardeners, dormancy has been selected out. For annuals , seeds are
4940-455: The plumule and radicle, acting as a protective covering. The maturing ovule undergoes marked changes in the integuments, generally a reduction and disorganization but occasionally a thickening. The seed coat forms from the two integuments or outer layers of cells of the ovule, which derive from tissue from the mother plant, the inner integument forms the tegmen and the outer forms the testa . (The seed coats of some monocotyledon plants, such as
5016-426: The previous English words in their Spanish form: barbacoa , caimán , canoa, casabe , cayo, guayaba, hamaca, huracán, iguana, jutía, macana , maíz, manatí, manglar, cimarrón, patata, sabana, and tabaco . Place names of Taíno origin include: Six sentences of spoken Taíno were preserved. They are presented first in the original orthography in which they were recorded, then in a regularized orthography based on
5092-405: The rate of germination. This is given as a percent of germination over a certain amount of time, 90% germination in 20 days, for example. 'Dormancy' is covered above; many plants produce seeds with varying degrees of dormancy, and different seeds from the same fruit can have different degrees of dormancy. It's possible to have seeds with no dormancy if they are dispersed right away and do not dry (if
5168-422: The reconstructed language and lastly in their English translation: Since the 2010s, there have been several publications that attempt at reconstructing modern Taíno lexicons by way of comparative linguistics with other related Arawak languages. Puertorican linguist Javier Hernandez published his Primario Basíco del Taíno-Borikenaíki in 2018 after a 16-year spanning research project with positive reception among
5244-415: The scar forming an oval depression, the hilum . Anatropous ovules have a portion of the funiculus that is adnate (fused to the seed coat), and which forms a longitudinal ridge, or raphe , just above the hilum. In bitegmic ovules (e.g. Gossypium described here) both inner and outer integuments contribute to the seed coat formation. With continuing maturation the cells enlarge in the outer integument. While
5320-413: The seed affects its health and germination ability: since the seed has a living embryo, over time cells die and cannot be replaced. Some seeds can live for a long time before germination, while others can only survive for a short period after dispersal before they die. Seed vigor is a measure of the quality of seed, and involves the viability of the seed, the germination percentage, germination rate, and
5396-405: The seeds. The ovule consists of a number of components: The shape of the ovules as they develop often affects the final shape of the seeds. Plants generally produce ovules of four shapes: the most common shape is called anatropous , with a curved shape. Orthotropous ovules are straight with all the parts of the ovule lined up in a long row producing an uncurved seed. Campylotropous ovules have
5472-420: The soil surface is the next phase of the plant's growth and is called seedling establishment. Three fundamental conditions must exist before germination can occur. (1) The embryo must be alive, called seed viability. (2) Any dormancy requirements that prevent germination must be overcome. (3) The proper environmental conditions must exist for germination. Far red light can prevent germination. Seed viability
5548-507: The strength of the seedlings produced. The germination percentage is simply the proportion of seeds that germinate from all seeds subject to the right conditions for growth. The germination rate is the length of time it takes for the seeds to germinate. Germination percentages and rates are affected by seed viability, dormancy and environmental effects that impact on the seed and seedling. In agriculture and horticulture quality seeds have high viability, measured by germination percentage plus
5624-460: The three or four deciduous sepals are smaller than the outer petals that do not overlap while in bud. Six to eight fleshy petals are arranged in two whorls—the petals of the outer whorl are larger and do not overlap; inner petals are ascending and distinctively smaller, and nectar glands are darker pigmented. The numerous stamens are ball-shaped, club-shaped, or curved and hooded or pointed beyond anther sac. Numerous pistils , attached directly to
5700-408: Was also a high back vowel [u] , which was often interchangeable with /o/ and may have been an allophone. There was a parallel set of nasal vowels . The nasal vowels /ĩ/ and /ũ/ were rare. Consonant clusters were not permitted in the onset of syllables. The only consonant permitted at the end of a syllable or word in most cases was /s/ . One exception was the suffix -(e)l , which indicated
5776-426: Was referred to as albumen , and the inner endosperm layer as vitellus. Although misleading, the term began to be applied to all the nutrient matter. This terminology persists in referring to endospermic seeds as "albuminous". The nature of this material is used in both describing and classifying seeds, in addition to the embryo to endosperm size ratio. The endosperm may be considered to be farinaceous (or mealy) in which
#558441