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64-538: Five types of annotation are given LIDAR annotation, Image annotation, Text annotation, Video annotation, Audio annotation Annotation Practices are highlighting a phrase or sentence and including a comment, circling a word that needs defining, posing a question when something is not fully understood and writing a short summary of a key section. It also invites students to "(re)construct a history through material engagement and exciting DIY (Do-It-Yourself) annotation practices." Annotation practices that are available today offer

128-404: A grammar that controlled the usage of descriptive elements. Scribe influenced the development of Generalized Markup Language (later SGML), and is a direct ancestor to HTML and LaTeX . In the early 1980s, the idea that markup should focus on the structural aspects of a document and leave the visual presentation of that structure to the interpreter led to the creation of SGML . The language

192-514: A schema ). This allowed authors to create and use any markup they wished, selecting tags that made the most sense to them and were named in their own natural languages, while also allowing automated verification. Thus, SGML is properly a meta-language , and many particular markup languages are derived from it. From the late '80s onward, most substantial new markup languages have been based on the SGML system, including for example TEI and DocBook . SGML

256-485: A certain writer has written and revised his or her texts, how literary documents have been edited, the history of reading culture, as well as censorship and the authenticity of texts. The subjects, methods and theoretical backgrounds of textual research vary widely, but what they have in common is an interest in the genesis and derivation of texts and textual variation in these practices. Many textual scholars are interested in author intention while others seek to see how text

320-417: A descriptive markup system on top of TeX, and is widely used both among the scientific community and the publishing industry. The first language to make a clean distinction between structure and presentation was Scribe , developed by Brian Reid and described in his doctoral thesis in 1980. Scribe was revolutionary in a number of ways, introducing the idea of styles separated from the marked-up document, and

384-422: A key goal, and without input from standards organizations, aimed at allowing authors to create formatted text via web browsers , for example in wikis and in web forums . These are sometimes called lightweight markup languages . Markdown , BBCode , and the markup language used by Misplaced Pages are examples of such languages. The first well-known public presentation of markup languages in computer text processing

448-476: A markup-language-based format. Another major publishing standard is TeX , created and refined by Donald Knuth in the 1970s and '80s. TeX concentrated on the detailed layout of text and font descriptions to typeset mathematical books. This required Knuth to spend considerable time investigating the art of typesetting . TeX is mainly used in academia , where it is a de facto standard in many scientific disciplines. A TeX macro package known as LaTeX provides

512-584: A memo proposing an Internet -based hypertext system, then specified HTML and wrote the browser and server software in the last part of 1990. The first publicly available description of HTML was a document called "HTML Tags", first mentioned on the Internet by Berners-Lee in late 1991. It describes 18 elements comprising the initial, relatively simple design of HTML. Except for the hyperlink tag, these were strongly influenced by SGMLguid , an in-house SGML -based documentation format at CERN , and very similar to

576-434: A proper name, defined term, or another special item, the markup may be inserted between the characters of the sentence. The noun markup is derived from the traditional publishing practice called "marking up" a manuscript , which involves adding handwritten annotations in the form of conventional symbolic printer 's instructions — in the margins and the text of a paper or a printed manuscript. For centuries, this task

640-506: A remarkable set of tools for students to begin to work, and in a more collaborative, connected way than has been previously possible. Text and Film Annotation is a technique that involves using comments, text within a film. Analyzing videos is an undertaking that is never entirely free of preconceived notions, and the first step for researchers is to find their bearings within the field of possible research approaches and thus reflect on their own basic assumptions. Annotations can take part within

704-423: A table is the column that contain the main subjects/entities in the table. Some approaches expects the subject column as an input while others predict the subject column such as TableMiner+. Columns types are divided differently by different approaches. Some divide them into strings/text and numbers while others divide them further (e.g., Number Typology, Date, coordinates). The relation between Madrid and Spain

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768-465: A tag such as "h1" (header level 1) might be presented in a large bold sans-serif typeface in an article, or it might be underscored in a monospaced (typewriter-style) document – or it might simply not change the presentation at all. In contrast, the i tag in HTML 4 is an example of presentational markup, which is generally used to specify a particular characteristic of the text without specifying

832-526: A taxonomic designation or a phrase in another language. The change was made to ease the transition from HTML 4 to HTML 5 as smoothly as possible so that deprecated uses of presentational elements would preserve the most likely intended semantics. The Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) has published extensive guidelines for how to encode texts of interest in the humanities and social sciences, developed through years of international cooperative work. These guidelines are used by projects encoding historical documents,

896-531: A text of a cell and a data source, the approach predicts the entity and link it to the one identified in the given data source. For example, if the input to the approach were the text "Richard Feynman" and a URL to the SPARQL endpoint of DBpedia, the approach would return " http://dbpedia.org/resource/Richard_Feynman ", which is the entity from DBpedia. Some approaches use exact match. while others use similarity metrics such as Cosine similarity The subject column of

960-445: A way that is syntactically distinguishable from that text. They can be used to add information about the desired visual presentation, or machine-readable semantic information, as in the semantic web . This includes CSV and XLS . The process of assigning semantic annotations to tabular data is referred to as semantic labelling. Semantic Labelling is the process of assigning annotations from ontologies to tabular data. This process

1024-404: A way that it is also an SGML document, and existing SGML users and software could switch to XML fairly easily. However, XML eliminated many of the more complex features of SGML to simplify implementation environments such as documents and publications. It appeared to strike a happy medium between simplicity and flexibility, as well as supporting very robust schema definition and validation tools, and

1088-464: Is "capitalOf". Such relations can easily be found in ontologies, such as DBpedia . Venetis et al. use TextRunner to extract the relation between two columns. Syed et al. use the relation between the entities of the two columns and the most frequent relation is selected. T2D is the most common gold standard for semantic labelling. Two versions exists of T2D: T2Dv1 (sometimes are referred to T2D as well) and T2Dv2. Another known benchmarks are published with

1152-497: Is a considerable blurring of the lines between the types of markup. In modern word-processing systems, presentational markup is often saved in descriptive-markup-oriented systems such as XML , and then processed procedurally by implementations . The programming in procedural-markup systems, such as TeX , may be used to create higher-level markup systems that are more descriptive in nature, such as LaTeX . In recent years, several markup languages have been developed with ease of use as

1216-492: Is a discipline that often uses the technique of annotation to describe or add additional historical context to texts and physical documents to make it easier to understand. Students often highlight passages in books in order to actively engage with the text. Students can use annotations to refer back to key phrases easily, or add marginalia to aid studying and finding connections between the text and prior knowledge or running themes. Annotated bibliographies add commentary on

1280-661: Is a set of rules governing what markup information may be included in a document and how it is combined with the content of the document in a way to facilitate use by humans and computer programs. The idea and terminology evolved from the "marking up" of paper manuscripts (e.g., with revision instructions by editors), traditionally written with a red pen or blue pencil on authors' manuscripts. Older markup languages, which typically focus on typography and presentation, include Troff , TeX , and LaTeX . Scribe and most modern markup languages, such as XML , identify document components (for example headings, paragraphs, and tables), with

1344-625: Is also referred to as semantic annotation. Semantic Labelling is often done in a (semi-)automatic fashion. Semantic Labelling techniques work on entity columns, numeric columns, coordinates, and more. There are several semantic labelling types which utilises machine learning techniques. These techniques can be categorised following the work of Flach as follows: geometric (using lines and planes, such as Support-vector machine , Linear regression ), probabilistic (e.g., Conditional random field ), logical (e.g., Decision tree learning ), and Non-ML techniques (e.g., balancing coverage and specificity). Note that

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1408-435: Is especially important when experts, such as medical doctors, interpret visualizations in detail and explain their interpretations to others, for example by means of digital technology. Here, annotation can be a way to establish common ground between interactants with different levels of knowledge. The value of annotation has been empirically confirmed, for example, in a study which shows that in computer-based teleconsultations

1472-637: Is more commonly seen today as the "father" of markup languages. Goldfarb hit upon the basic idea while working on a primitive document management system intended for law firms in 1969, and helped invent IBM GML later that same year. GML was first publicly disclosed in 1973. In 1975, Goldfarb moved from Cambridge, Massachusetts to Silicon Valley and became a product planner at the IBM Almaden Research Center . There, he convinced IBM's executives to deploy GML commercially in 1978 as part of IBM's Document Composition Facility product, and it

1536-614: Is that all attribute values in tags must be quoted. Both these differences are commonly criticized as verbose but also praised because they make it far easier to detect, localize, and repair errors. Finally, all tag and attribute names within the XHTML namespace must be lowercase to be valid. HTML, on the other hand, was case-insensitive. Many XML-based applications now exist, including the Resource Description Framework as RDF/XML , XForms , DocBook , SOAP , and

1600-759: Is transmitted. Textual scholars often produce their own editions of what they discovered. Disciplines of textual scholarship include, among others, textual criticism , stemmatology , paleography , genetic criticism , bibliography and history of the book . Textual scholar David Greetham has described textual scholarship as a term encompassing "the procedures of enumerative bibliographers, descriptive, analytical, and historical bibliographers, paleographers and codicologists, textual editors, and annotators-cumulatively and collectively". Some disciplines of textual scholarship focus on certain material sources or text genres, such as epigraphy , codicology and diplomatics . The historical roots of textual scholarship date back to

1664-558: Is typical for the internal representations that programs use to work with marked-up documents. However, embedded or "inline" markup is much more common elsewhere. Here, for example, is a small section of text marked up in HTML: The codes enclosed in angle-brackets <like this> are markup instructions (known as tags), while the text between these instructions is the actual text of the document. The codes h1 , p , and em are examples of semantic markup, in that they describe

1728-496: The International Organization for Standardization committee that created SGML , the first standard descriptive markup language. Book designer Stanley Rice published speculation along similar lines in 1970. Brian Reid , in his 1980 dissertation at Carnegie Mellon University , developed the theory and a working implementation of descriptive markup in actual use. However, IBM researcher Charles Goldfarb

1792-486: The Web Ontology Language (OWL). For a partial list of these, see List of XML markup languages . A common feature of many markup languages is that they intermix the text of a document with markup instructions in the same data stream or file. This is not necessary; it is possible to isolate markup from text content, using pointers, offsets, IDs, or other methods to coordinate the two. Such "standoff markup"

1856-450: The courts , and the annotated statutes are valuable tools in legal research . One purpose of annotation is to transform the data into a form suitable for computer-aided analysis. Prior to annotation, an annotation scheme is defined that typically consists of tags. During tagging, transcriptionists manually add tags into transcripts where required linguistical features are identified in an annotation editor. The annotation scheme ensures that

1920-533: The medical imaging community, an annotation is often referred to as a region of interest and is encoded in DICOM format. In the United States, legal publishers such as Thomson West and Lexis Nexis publish annotated versions of statutes , providing information about court cases that have interpreted the statutes. Both the federal United States Code and state statutes are subject to interpretation by

1984-461: The run-time behaviour of an application. It is possible to create meta-annotations out of the existing ones in Java. Automatic image annotation is used to classify images for image retrieval systems. Since the 1980s, molecular biology and bioinformatics have created the need for DNA annotation . DNA annotation or genome annotation is the process of identifying the locations of genes and all of

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2048-490: The "AnnoMathTeX" system that is hosted by Wikimedia. From a cognitive perspective, annotation has an important role in learning and instruction. As part of guided noticing it involves highlighting, naming or labelling and commenting aspects of visual representations to help focus learners' attention on specific visual aspects. In other words, it means the assignment of typological representations (culturally meaningful categories), to topological representations (e.g. images). This

2112-528: The 3rd century BCE, when the scholarly activities of copying, comparing, describing and archiving texts became professionalized in the Library of Alexandria . Markup language A markup language is a text-encoding system which specifies the structure and formatting of a document and potentially the relationships among its parts. Markup can control the display of a document or enrich its content to facilitate automated processing. A markup language

2176-481: The Linguistic Annotation Wiki. Textual scholarship Textual scholarship (or textual studies ) is an umbrella term for disciplines that deal with describing, transcribing, editing or annotating texts and physical documents . Textual research is mainly historically oriented. Textual scholars study, for instance, how writing practices and printing technology have developed, how

2240-508: The SemTab Challenge. The "annotate" function (also known as "blame" or "praise") used in source control systems such as Git , Team Foundation Server and Subversion determines who committed changes to the source code into the repository. This outputs a copy of the source code where each line is annotated with the name of the last contributor to edit that line (and possibly a revision number). This can help establish blame in

2304-515: The Wikitology index, they use PageRank for Entity linking , which is one of the tasks often used in semantic labelling. Since they were not able to query Google for all Misplaced Pages articles to get the PageRank , they used Decision tree to approximate it. Alobaid and Corcho presented an approach to annotate entity columns. The technique starts by annotating the cells in the entity column with

2368-454: The annotation process as helpful for improving overall writing ability, grammar, and academic vocabulary knowledge. Mathematical expressions (symbols and formulae) can be annotated with their natural language meaning. This is essential for disambiguation, since symbols may have different meanings (e.g., "E" can be "energy" or "expectation value", etc.). The annotation process can be facilitated and accelerated through recommendation, e.g., using

2432-510: The coding regions in a genome and determining what those genes do. An annotation (irrespective of the context) is a note added by way of explanation or commentary. Once a genome is sequenced, it needs to be annotated to make sense of it. In the digital imaging community the term annotation is commonly used for visible metadata superimposed on an image without changing the underlying master image, such as sticky notes , virtual laser pointers, circles, arrows, and black-outs (cf. redaction ). In

2496-476: The document text so that typesetting software could format the text according to the editor's specifications. It was a trial and error iterative process to get a document printed correctly. Availability of WYSIWYG ("what you see is what you get") publishing software supplanted much use of these languages among casual users, though serious publishing work still uses markup to specify the non-visual structure of texts, and WYSIWYG editors now usually save documents in

2560-413: The entities from the reference knowledge graph (e.g., DBpedia ). The classes are then gathered and each one of them is scored based on several formulas they presented taking into account the frequency of each class and their depth according to the subClass hierarchy. Here are some of the common semantic labelling tasks presented in the literature: This is the most common task in semantic labelling. Given

2624-492: The event a change caused a malfunction, or identify the author of brilliant code. A special case is the Java programming language , where annotations can be used as a special form of syntactic metadata in the source code. Classes, methods, variables, parameters and packages may be annotated. The annotations can be embedded in class files generated by the compiler and may be retained by the Java virtual machine and thus influence

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2688-401: The expectation that technology, such as stylesheets , will be used to apply formatting or other processing. Some markup languages, such as the widely used HTML , have pre-defined presentation semantics , meaning that their specifications prescribe some aspects of how to present the structured data on particular media. HTML, like DocBook , Open eBook , JATS , and many others, is based on

2752-413: The geometric, probabilistic, and logical machine learning models are not mutually exclusive. Pham et al. use Jaccard index and TF-IDF similarity for textual data and Kolmogorov–Smirnov test for the numeric ones. Alobaid and Corcho use fuzzy clustering (c-means) to label numeric columns. Limaye et al. uses TF-IDF similarity and graphical models . They also use support-vector machine to compute

2816-599: The grammar. Many of the HTML text elements are found in the 1988 ISO technical report TR 9537 Techniques for using SGML , which in turn covers the features of early text formatting languages such as that used by the RUNOFF command developed in the early 1960s for the CTSS (Compatible Time-Sharing System) operating system. These formatting commands were derived from those used by typesetters to manually format documents. Steven DeRose argues that HTML's use of descriptive markup (and

2880-469: The influence of SGML in particular) was a major factor in the success of the Web, because of the flexibility and extensibility that it enabled. HTML became the main markup language for creating web pages and other information that can be displayed in a web browser and is likely the most used markup language in the world today. XML (Extensible Markup Language) is a meta markup language that is very widely used. XML

2944-486: The integration of image annotation and speech leads to significantly improved knowledge exchange compared with the use of images and speech without annotation. Annotations were removed on January 15, 2019, from YouTube after around a decade of service. They had allowed users to provide information that popped up during videos, but YouTube indicated they did not work well on small mobile screens, and were being abused. Markup languages like XML and HTML annotate text in

3008-446: The intended purpose or the meaning of the text they include. Specifically, h1 means "this is a first-level heading", p means "this is a paragraph", and em means "this is an emphasized word or phrase". A program interpreting such structural markup may apply its own rules or styles for presenting the various pieces of text, using different typefaces, boldness, font size, indentation, color, or other styles, as desired. For example,

3072-478: The margins of a manuscript. Medieval marginalia is so well known that amusing or disconcerting instances of it are fodder for viral aggregators such as Buzzfeed and Brainpickings, and the fascination with other readers’ reading is manifest in sites such as Melville's Marginalia Online or Harvard's online exhibit of marginalia from six personal libraries. It can also be a part of other websites such as Pinterest, or even meme generators and GIF tools. Textual scholarship

3136-425: The markup meta-languages SGML and XML . That is, SGML and XML allow designers to specify particular schemas , which determine which elements, attributes, and other features are permitted, and where. A key characteristic of most markup languages is that they allow intermingling markup with document content such as text and pictures. For example, if a few words in a sentence need to be emphasized, or identified as

3200-415: The most noticeable differences between HTML and XHTML is the rule that all tags must be closed : empty HTML tags such as <br> must either be closed with a regular end-tag, or replaced by a special form: <br /> (the space before the ' / ' on the end tag is optional, but frequently used because it enables some pre-XML Web browsers, and SGML parsers, to accept the tag). Another difference

3264-458: The reason for that appearance. In this case, the i element dictates the use of an italic typeface. However, in HTML 5 , this element has been repurposed with a more semantic usage: to denote a span of text in an alternate voice or mood, or otherwise offset from the normal prose in a manner indicating a different quality of text . For example, it is appropriate to use the i element to indicate

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3328-465: The relevance or quality of each source, in addition to the usual bibliographic information that merely identifies the source. Students use Annotation not only for academic purposes, but interpreting their own thoughts, feelings, and emotions. Sites such as Scalar and Omeka are sites that students use. There are multiple genres with Annotation such as math, film, linguists, and literary theory which students find it most helpful to use. Most students reported

3392-549: The sample schema in the SGML standard. Eleven of these elements still exist in HTML 4. Berners-Lee considered HTML an SGML application. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) formally defined it as such with the mid-1993 publication of the first proposal for an HTML specification: "Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)" Internet-Draft Archived 2017-01-03 at the Wayback Machine by Berners-Lee and Dan Connolly , which included an SGML Document Type Definition to define

3456-424: The tags are added consistently across the data set and allows for verification of previously tagged data. Aside from tags, more complex forms of linguistic annotation include the annotation of phrases and relations, e.g., in treebanks . Many different forms of linguistic annotation have been developed, as well as different formats and tools for creating and managing linguistic annotations, as described, for example, in

3520-481: The video, and can be used when the data video is recorded. It is being used as a tool in text and film to write one's thoughts and emotion into the markings. In any number of steps of analysis, it can also be supplemented with more annotations. Anthropologists Clifford Geertz calls it a "thick description." This can give a sense of how useful annotation is, especially by adding a description of how it can be implemented in film. Marginalia refers to writing or decoration in

3584-456: The weights. Venetis et al. construct an isA database which consists of the pairs (instance, class) and then compute maximum likelihood using these pairs. Alobaid and Corcho approximated the q-q plot for predicting the properties of numeric columns. Syed et al. built Wikitology, which is "a hybrid knowledge base of structured and unstructured information extracted from Misplaced Pages augmented by RDF data from DBpedia and other Linked Data resources." For

3648-452: The works of particular scholars, periods, genres, and so on. While the idea of markup language originated with text documents, there is increasing use of markup languages in the presentation of other types of information, including playlists , vector graphics , web services , content syndication , and user interfaces . Most of these are XML applications because XML is a well-defined and extensible language. The use of XML has also led to

3712-512: Was developed by a committee chaired by Goldfarb. It incorporated ideas from many different sources, including Tunnicliffe's project, GenCode. Sharon Adler, Anders Berglund, and James A. Marke were also key members of the SGML committee. SGML specified a syntax for including the markup in documents, as well as one for separately describing what tags were allowed, and where (the Document Type Definition ( DTD ), later known as

3776-522: Was developed by the World Wide Web Consortium in a committee created and chaired by Jon Bosak . The main purpose of XML was to simplify SGML by focusing on a particular problem — documents on the Internet. XML remains a meta-language like SGML, allowing users to create any tags needed (hence "extensible") and then describing those tags and their permitted uses. XML adoption was helped because every XML document can be written in such

3840-664: Was done primarily by skilled typographers known as "markup men" or "markers" who marked up text to indicate what typeface , style, and size should be applied to each part, and then passed the manuscript to others for typesetting by hand or machine. The markup was also commonly applied by editors, proofreaders , publishers, and graphic designers, and indeed by document authors, all of whom might also mark other things, such as corrections, changes, etc. There are three main general categories of electronic markup, articulated in Coombs, Renear, and DeRose (1987), and Bray (2003). There

3904-419: Was made by William W. Tunnicliffe at a conference in 1967, although he preferred to call it generic coding. It can be seen as a response to the emergence of programs such as RUNOFF that each used their own control notations, often specific to the target typesetting device. In the 1970s, Tunnicliffe led the development of a standard called GenCode for the publishing industry and later was the first chairman of

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3968-631: Was promulgated as an International Standard by International Organization for Standardization , ISO 8879, in 1986. SGML found wide acceptance and use in fields with very large-scale documentation requirements. However, many found it cumbersome and difficult to learn — a side effect of its design attempting to do too much and being too flexible. For example, SGML made end tags (or start-tags, or even both) optional in certain contexts, because its developers thought markup would be done manually by overworked support staff who would appreciate saving keystrokes . In 1989, computer scientist Sir Tim Berners-Lee wrote

4032-735: Was rapidly adopted for many other uses. XML is now widely used for communicating data between applications, for serializing program data, for hardware communications protocols, vector graphics, and many other uses as well as documents. From January 2000 until HTML 5 was released, all W3C Recommendations for HTML have been based on XML, using the abbreviation XHTML ( Ex tensible H yper T ext M arkup L anguage). The language specification requires that XHTML Web documents be well-formed XML documents. This allows for more rigorous and robust documents, by avoiding many syntax errors which historically led to incompatible browser behaviors, while still using document components that are familiar with HTML. One of

4096-623: Was widely used in business within a few years. SGML, which was based on both GML and GenCode, was an ISO project worked on by Goldfarb beginning in 1974. Goldfarb eventually became chair of the SGML committee. SGML was first released by ISO as the ISO 8879 standard in October 1986. Some early examples of computer markup languages available outside the publishing industry can be found in typesetting tools on Unix systems such as troff and nroff . In these systems, formatting commands were inserted into

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