102-826: The Abenaki ( Abenaki : Wαpánahki ) are Indigenous people of the Northeastern Woodlands of Canada and the United States. They are an Algonquian -speaking people and part of the Wabanaki Confederacy . The Eastern Abenaki language was predominantly spoken in Maine , while the Western Abenaki language was spoken in Quebec , Vermont , and New Hampshire . While Abenaki peoples have shared cultural traits, they did not historically have
204-489: A 4.7 m high palisade that was to be reinforced with stone bastions. During this war, Abenaki warriors were involved in numerous raids and conflicts such as the infamous Deerfield Raid of 29 February 1704 in which 112 English captives were taken. In 1706, the village was moved from its original location on the north-eastern bank of the St. François River downstream, near the current location of Pierreville in order to accommodate
306-565: A centralized government. They came together as a post-contact community after their original tribes were decimated by colonization, disease, and warfare . The word Abenaki and its syncope , Abnaki, are both derived from Wabanaki , or Wôbanakiak, meaning "People of the Dawn Land" in the Abenaki language . While the two terms are often confused, the Abenaki are one of several tribes in
408-417: A child the pitfalls of pride. Abenaki language Abenaki (Eastern: Alənαpαtəwéwαkan , Western: Alnôbaôdwawôgan ), also known as Wôbanakiak , is an endangered Eastern Algonquian language of Quebec and the northern states of New England . The language has Eastern and Western forms which differ in vocabulary and phonology and are sometimes considered distinct languages. Western Abenaki
510-403: A dozen natives, with annual sales of more than $ 3 million Canadian dollars. Odanak is now active in transportation and distribution. Notable Abenaki from this area include the documentary filmmaker Alanis Obomsawin ( National Film Board of Canada ). These two tribes are officially listed federally recognized as tribes in the United States. The Passamaquoddy Tribe of Maine was recognized by
612-433: A farming society that supplemented agriculture with hunting and gathering. Generally the men were the hunters. The women tended the fields and grew the crops. In their fields, they planted the crops in groups of "sisters". The three sisters were grown together: the stalk of corn supported the beans, and squash or pumpkins provided ground cover and reduced weeds. The men would hunt bears, deer, fish, and birds. The Abenaki were
714-405: A growing population. In the summer of 1711, Odanak was temporarily abandoned due to the threats posed by Admiral Hovenden Walker 's and Colonel Francis Nicholson 's planned assault on Quebec City. The male Abenaki warriors of the village were called up to Quebec to take part in the defence of the city while the woman and children were temporarily relocated to Trois-Rivières and Montreal. Following
816-662: A large population. They made war primarily against neighboring Algonquian peoples , including the Abenaki. Muir uses archaeological data to argue that the Iroquois expansion onto Algonquian lands was checked by the Algonquian adoption of agriculture. This enabled them to support their own populations large enough to have sufficient warriors to defend against the threat of Iroquois conquest. In 1614, Thomas Hunt captured 24 Abenaki people, including Squanto (Tisquantum) and took them to Spain, where they were sold into slavery . During
918-500: A means of teaching children behavior. Children were not to be mistreated, and so instead of punishing the child, they would be told a story. One of the stories is of Azban the Raccoon. This is a story about a proud raccoon that challenges a waterfall to a shouting contest. When the waterfall does not respond, Azban dives into the waterfall to try to outshout it; he is swept away because of his pride . This story would be used to show
1020-757: A modern economy, while preserving their culture and traditions. For example, since 1960, the Odanak Historical Society has managed the first and one of the largest aboriginal museums in Quebec, a few miles from the Quebec-Montreal axis. Over 5,000 people visit the Abenaki Museum annually. Several Abenaki companies include: in Wôlinak, General Fiberglass Engineering employs a dozen natives, with annual sales exceeding C$ 3 million. Odanak
1122-581: A patrilineal society, which was common among New England tribes. In this they differed from the six Iroquois tribes to the west in New York, and from many other North American Native tribes who had matrilineal societies. Groups used the consensus method to make important decisions. Storytelling is a major part of Abenaki culture. It is used not only as entertainment but also as a teaching method. The Abenaki view stories as having lives of their own and being aware of how they are used. Stories were used as
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#17327648001311224-551: A sacred Abenaki site. The Abenaki language is closely related to the Panawahpskek (Penobscot) language. Other neighboring Wabanaki tribes, the Pestomuhkati (Passamaquoddy), Wolastoqiyik (Maliseet), and Mi'kmaq , and other Eastern Algonquian languages share many linguistic similarities. It has come close to extinction as a spoken language. Tribal members are working to revive the Abenaki language at Odanak (means "in
1326-1029: A synonym to Abenaki . Initially the newsletter was called Aln8ba8dwa National News ( Aln8ba8dwa or Alnôbaôdwa means 'Speaking Abenaki'). Issues of the quarterly newsletter from 2003–2010 were published by the Cowasuck Band of the Pennacook Abenaki on their website. According to a statement made by the Band, after 2010, they stopped publishing the newsletter on their website due to a lack of financial support from online readers. Aln8bak News included community-related information such as updates on governance issues, notices of social events, and obituaries. The newsletter also included Band history, genealogy, language lessons, recipes, plant and animal studies, books reviews, and writings by Band members. The English word skunk , attested in New England in
1428-513: A traditional activity practiced by some tribal members. During the Anglo-French wars, the Abenaki were allies of France, having been displaced from Ndakinna by immigrating English settlers. An anecdote from the period tells the story of a Wolastoqew war chief named Nescambuit (variant spellings include Assacumbuit), who killed more than 140 enemies of King Louis XIV of France and received the rank of knight. Not all Abenaki natives fought on
1530-680: A tribe in the Abenaki nation. They were driven out of the area by Europeans in 1690 sometime after King Philip's War (1675–1676). They were relocated west at St. Francis , Canada. During the French and Indian War (the Seven Years' War ), this settlement was destroyed and burnt by Rogers' Rangers in 1759. The Abenaki and some St. Francis residents participated in raids against English settlements. These were sometimes organized by Sébastien Rale and Abenaki chief Grey Lock in Dummer's War along
1632-736: Is a filmmaker who grew up in Odanak. Her documentary, Waban-Aki: People from Where the Sun Rises (2006) is a tribute to the people of St. Francis. Her most recent documentary film Gene Boy Came Home (2007) tells the story of Eugene "Gene Boy" Benedict. He was raised in Odanak. As a young man, he fought in the US Marine Corps against the North Vietnamese in the Vietnam War before returning to his home village. In 2011,
1734-479: Is a polysynthetic language, which allows for virtually unlimited means to express oneself. Abenaki consists of both dependent and independent grammar which addresses the gender of the speaker. Abenaki has nouns, pronouns, verbs, and adjectives. The structure of the sentence or phrase varies depending on whether the noun is animate or inanimate. Although written primarily in English, Aln8bak News helped to preserve
1836-617: Is actively preserving and revitalizing the language. The late Joseph Elie Joubert from the Odanak reservation and fluent speaker, Jesse Bruchac , lead partial immersion classes in the language across the Northeastern United States . They have created several Abenaki books, audio, video, and web-based media to help others learn the language. In July 2013, the Penobscot Nation, the University of Maine and
1938-730: Is an ongoing effort to preserve it and teach it in the local schools; much of the language was preserved by Frank Siebert . Other speakers of Eastern Abenaki included tribes such as the Amoscocongon who spoke the Arosagunticook dialect, and the Caniba , which are documented in French-language materials from the colonial period. In Reflections in Bullough's Pond , historian Diana Muir argues that Abenaki neighbors,
2040-842: Is called the Wôlinak Indian Reserve. When the Wampanoag under King Philip ( Metacomet ) fought the English colonists in New England in 1675 in King Philip's War , the Abenaki joined the Wampanoag. For three years they fought along the Maine frontier in the First Abenaki War . The Abenaki pushed back the line of white settlement through devastating raids on scattered farmhouses and small villages. The war
2142-637: Is derived from wôban ("dawn" or "east") and aki ("land") (compare Proto-Algonquian *wa·pan and *axkyi ) — the aboriginal name of the area broadly corresponding to New England and the Maritimes . It is sometimes used to refer to all the Algonquian-speaking peoples of the area—Western Abenaki, Eastern Abenaki, Wolastoqiyik - Passamaquoddy , and Mi'kmaq —as a single group. The Abenaki people also call themselves Alnôbak , meaning "Real People" (c.f., Lenape language : Lenapek ) and by
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#17327648001312244-399: Is generally accepted by linguists or Abenaki speakers, but speakers typically do understand the orthographies of Joseph Laurent and Henry Lorne Masta ––Western Abenaki writers who taught the language at Odanak . Masta and Laurent's orthographies. Stress within words in Western Abenaki is based on an alternating stress rule: As of 2004, linguists are unsure if a minimum syllable count
2346-500: Is now active in transportation and distribution. Notable Abenaki from this area include the documentary filmmaker Alanis Obomsawin ( National Film Board of Canada ). The Penobscot Indian Nation , Passamaquoddy people, and Houlton Band of Maliseet Indians have been federally recognized as tribes in the United States. Nulhegan Band of the Coosuk Abenaki Nation , Koasek Abenaki Tribe , Elnu Abenaki Tribe , and
2448-569: Is now northern New England , southern Quebec , and the southern Canadian Maritimes . The Eastern Abenaki population was concentrated in portions of New Brunswick and Maine east of New Hampshire 's White Mountains . The other major group, the Western Abenaki, lived in the Connecticut River valley in Vermont, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts. The Missiquoi lived along the eastern shore of Lake Champlain . The Pennacook lived along
2550-594: Is present in order for a word to be stressed. Stress within sentences: Odanak Odanak is an Abenaki First Nations reserve in the Central Quebec region, Quebec , Canada . The mostly First Nations population as of the 2021 Canadian census was 481. The territory is located near the mouth of the Saint-François River at its confluence with the St. Lawrence River . It is partly within
2652-466: Is this man and where does he come from?" There is archaeological evidence of indigenous people in what is today New Hampshire for at least 12,000 years. In Reflections in Bullough's Pond , historian Diana Muir argues that the Abenakis' neighbors, pre-contact Iroquois, were an imperialist, expansionist culture whose cultivation of the corn/beans/squash agricultural complex enabled them to support
2754-528: The Jesuit Relations as not cannibals , and as docile, ingenious, temperate in the use of liquor, and not profane. Abenaki lifeways were similar to those of Algonquian-speaking peoples of southern New England. They cultivated food crops and built villages on or near fertile river floodplains. They also hunted game, fished, and gathered wild plants and fungi . Unlike the Haudenosaunee ,
2856-625: The American Philosophical Society received a grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities to expand and publish the first Penobscot Dictionary. Middlebury College in Vermont, in collaboration with Bruchac, opened its School of Abenaki in 2020, which offers a two-week immersion program in the summer. As with most Indigenous languages, due to residential schooling and colonialism, and with
2958-557: The Merrimack River in southern New Hampshire. The maritime Abenaki lived around the St. Croix and Wolastoq (Saint John River) Valleys near the boundary line between Maine and New Brunswick . English colonial settlement in New England and frequent violence forced many Abenaki to migrate to Quebec . The Abenaki settled in the Sillery region of Quebec between 1676 and 1680, and subsequently, for about twenty years, lived on
3060-547: The Missisquoi Abenaki Tribe are, as of 2011, all state-recognized tribes in the United States . The Missisquoi Abenaki applied for federal recognition as an Indian tribe in the 1980s but failed to meet four of the seven criteria. The Bureau of Indian Affairs found that less than 1 percent of the Missisquoi's 1,171 members could show descent from an Abenaki ancestor. The bureau's report concluded that
3162-479: The Wabanaki Confederacy . Alternate spellings include: Abnaki , Abinaki , Alnôbak , Abanakee , Abanaki , Abanaqui , Abanaquois , Abenaka , Abenake , Abenaki , Abenakias , Abenakiss , Abenakkis , Abenaque , Abenaqui , Abenaquioict , Abenaquiois , Abenaquioue , Abenati , Abeneaguis , Abenequa , Abenkai , Abenquois , Abernaqui , Abnaqui , Abnaquies , Abnaquois , Abnaquotii , Abasque , Abnekais , Abneki , Abonakies , Abonnekee . Wôbanakiak
Abenaki - Misplaced Pages Continue
3264-425: The autonym Alnanbal, meaning "men". Historically, ethnologists have classified the Abenaki by geographic groups: Western Abenaki and Eastern Abenaki . Within these groups are the Abenaki bands: Smaller tribes: Smaller tribes: Wolastoqiyik and Passamaquoddy: The homeland of the Abenaki, called Ndakinna (Our Land; alternately written as N'dakinna or N'Dakinna ), previously extended across most of what
3366-498: The governor and the state government in general. The Abenaki want to gain formal state recognition as a people. Opponents of the bill feared it could lead to Abenaki land claims for property now owned and occupied by European Americans. Others worried that the Abenaki may use recognition as a step toward opening a casino. But the bill specifically says that "this act shall not be interpreted to provide any Native American or Abenaki person with any other special rights or privileges that
3468-549: The 1630s, is probably borrowed from the Abenaki segôkw . About 500 Penobscot words are still being used in the community in everyday language such as Muhmum for 'grandpa' and nolke for 'deer'. The 2015 National Geographic Channel miniseries Saints & Strangers told the story of the founding of Plymouth Plantation and the celebration of the "First Thanksgiving". It contained a considerable amount of dialogue in Western Abenaki. Several actors, including Tatanka Means ( Hobbamock ), and Raoul Trujillo ( Massasoit ) spoke
3570-414: The Abenaki language through the inclusion of Abenaki words and their translations. Aln8bak News was a quarterly newsletter that discussed cultural, historical, and contemporary information regarding the Cowasuck Band of the Pennacook Abenaki. It was started in 1993 by Paul Pouilot, Sagamo of the Cowasuck Band of the Pennacook Abenaki. The word Aln8bak/Alnôbak (pronounced: /'al.nɔ̃.bak/ ) is often used as
3672-412: The Abenaki raided the settlements at Brunswick , Arrowsick , and Merry-Meeting Bay . The Massachusetts government then declared war, and bloody battles were fought at Norridgewock (1724), where Rasles was killed, and at a daylong battle at Pequawket, an Indian village near present-day Fryeburg, Maine , on the upper Saco River (1725). Peace conferences at Boston and Casco Bay brought an end to
3774-568: The Abenaki started to emigrate to Quebec due to conflicts with English colonists and epidemics of new infectious diseases. The governor of New France allocated two seigneuries (large self-administered areas similar to feudal fiefs ). The first, of what was later to become Indian reserves , was on the Saint Francis River and is now known as the Odanak Indian Reserve; the second was founded near Bécancour and
3876-451: The Abenaki were patrilineal . Each man had different hunting territories inherited through his father. Most of the year, Abenaki lived in dispersed bands of extended families. Bands came together during the spring and summer at seasonal villages near rivers, or somewhere along the seacoast for planting and fishing. During the winter, the Abenaki lived in small groups further inland. These villages occasionally had to be fortified, depending on
3978-478: The Canadian Abenaki to develop a modern economy while preserving their culture and traditions. For example, since 1960, the Odanak Historical Society has managed the first and one of the largest aboriginal museums in Quebec, a few miles from the Quebec - Montreal axis. Over 5,000 people visit the Abenaki Museum annually. Several Abenaki companies include: in Wôlinak, General Fiberglass Engineering employs
4080-588: The Canadian and New England regions. In Maine , there are about 3,000 Penobscot Native Americans, and this group is a large driving force of the language resurrection. In addition to Brink and others, Jesse Bruchac is a loud voice in the Abenaki culture. Along with writing and publishing various Abenaki books, he created a movie and sound piece telling the Native American side of Thanksgiving, spoken in Abenaki. In this film, Saints & Strangers ,
4182-476: The Eastern and Western dialects of Abenaki have 18 consonant sounds in total. It is important to note that historically Western Abenaki speakers varied in the ways they pronounced the alveolar affricate phonemes /ts/ and /dz/. More than half of the population pronounced ⟨c⟩ like /ts/ and ⟨j⟩ like /dz/ and the rest pronounced ⟨c⟩ like /ʃ/ and ⟨j⟩ like /ʒ/. There is not one Western Abenaki orthography that
Abenaki - Misplaced Pages Continue
4284-618: The European colonization of North America, the land occupied by the Abenaki was in the area between the new colonies of England in Massachusetts and the French in Quebec. Since no party agreed to territorial boundaries, there was regular conflict among them. The Abenaki were traditionally allied with the French; during the reign of Louis XIV , Chief Assacumbuit was designated a member of the French nobility for his service. Around 1669,
4386-692: The French and natives gave rise to the Métis people. Over the next hundred years, conflicts between the French and the English often included their colonies and their respective native allies. The French treated their Abenaki allies with some respect; in 1706, Louis XIV knighted Chief Assacumbuit for his service, thus elevating him as a member of the French nobility. Around 1669, the Abenaki started to emigrate to Quebec due to conflicts with English colonists and epidemics of new infectious diseases. The governor of New France allocated two seigneuries (large self-administered areas similar to feudal fiefs). The first
4488-687: The French. Evidence supports the tradition that St. Francis was first occupied by the Sokoki ( Ozogwakiakas in Abenaki) as early as 1660, with as many as twenty families; the earliest Sokoki baptism recorded in the area was nearby in Trois-Rivières in 1658. The Sokoki were a band or tribe within the larger Abenaki group. Central Maine was formerly inhabited by people of the Androscoggin people , also known as Arosaguntacook. The Androscoggin were
4590-740: The King Louis XIV of France ordered the King's Engineer, Levasseur De Néré to draw up a plan in order fortify the Jesuit mission during the War of the Spanish Succession to provide protection for the families of the Abenaki and Sokoki warriors who had sided with the French against the English and the Iroquois during the war and in prior conflicts. Governor Callière subsequently ordered the construction of defensive features such as redoubts and
4692-425: The Maine frontier in the First Abenaki War . The Abenaki pushed back the line of white settlement by devastating raids on scattered farmhouses and small villages. The war was settled by a peace treaty in 1678. During Queen Anne's War in 1702, the Abenaki were allied with the French; they raided numerous small villages in Maine from Wells to Casco , killing about 300 settlers over ten years. The raids stopped when
4794-497: The Massachusetts militia tried to seize Rale, the Abenaki raided the settlements at Brunswick , Arrowsick , and Merry-Meeting Bay . The Massachusetts government then declared war and bloody battles were fought at Norridgewock (1724), where Rale was killed, and at a daylong battle at the Indian village near present-day Fryeburg, Maine , on the upper Saco River (1725). Peace conferences at Boston and Casco Bay brought an end to
4896-753: The Missisquoi Abenaki membership has Abenaki ancestry, with the rest of the organization's root ancestors being primarily French Canadian and migrating to Vermont in the mid-19th century. The Abenaki Nation of Missisquoi's shifting claims about its root ancestors as well as loose membership criteria are consistent with race-shifting patterns. Leroux's research prompted renewed calls by the Abenaki First Nations to reassess Vermont's state recognition process. New Hampshire does not recognize any Abenaki tribes. It has no federally recognized tribes or state-recognized tribes; however, it established
4998-692: The New Hampshire Commission on Native American Affairs in 2010. The various Cowasuck , Abenaki and other Native and heritage groups are represented to the Commission. In 2021, a bill was introduced to the New Hampshire legislature to allow New Hampshire communities to rename locations in the Abenaki language. This bill did not pass. There are a dozen variations of the name "Abenaki", such as Abenaquiois, Abakivis, Quabenakionek, Wabenakies and others. The Abenaki were described in
5100-486: The Odanak and Wolinak Abenaki First Nations in Quebec initially believed claims from residents of Vermont who said they were Abenaki, the Odanak reversed their position in 2003, calling on the groups in Vermont to provide them with genealogical evidence of Indigenous ancestry. Scholars have not been able to find credible evidence of the Vermont Abenaki's claims of Indigenous ancestry. Anthropological research from
5202-627: The St. Croix River, and Schoodic Lake. Villages: Gunasquamekook, Imnarkuan, Machias, Sebaik, and Sipayik. There were other towns at Lewis Island and Calais in Maine with a few locations on the Canadian side of the St. Croix River. Originally composed of Abenaki tribes in Vermont and New Hampshire west of the White Mountains, Sokoki means ' people who separated ' . Various forms of Sokoki are: Assokwekik, Ondeake, Onejagese, Sakukia, Sokokiois, Sokoquios, Sokoquis, Sokokquis, Sokoni, Sokwaki, Soquachjck, and Zooquagese. Some accounts include groups of
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#17327648001315304-457: The St. John River in northeastern Maine and western New Brunswick. Devon, Kingsclear, Madawaska, Mary's, Medoctec (Medoktek, Meductic), Okpaak, Oromocto, St. Anne, St. Basile, The Brothers (Micmac), Tobique, Viger, and Woodstock. Passamaquoddy (Machias Tribe, Opanango, Pesmokant, Quoddy, Scotuks, Scootuck, St. Croix Indians, Unchechauge, Unquechauge). The name means ' pollock spearing place ' with their villages were located on Passamaquoddy Bay,
5406-518: The St. Lawrence River Valley was essentially uninhabited; the Mohawk reserved it for use as hunting grounds and as a path for war parties. As French missionaries worked in present-day Quebec and central-western New York with native peoples in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, they established mission villages for converted natives near the colonial towns of Quebec City and Montreal . The Abenaki who converted to Catholicism were allied with
5508-486: The State of Vermont reported that the Abenaki people have not had a "continuous presence" in the state and had migrated north to Quebec by the end of the 17th century. Facing annihilation, many Abenaki had begun emigrating to Canada, then under French control, around 1669. The Abenaki Nation, based in Quebec, claim that those self-identifying as Abenaki in Vermont are settlers making false claims to Indigenous ancestry. While
5610-555: The Two Mountains (Iroquois and Nipissing), St. Francois ( Sokoki , Pennacook , and New England Algonquin , Becancour ( Eastern Abenaki ), Oswegatchie ( Onondaga and Oneida ), Lorette (Huron), and St. Regis (Mohawk). Amaseconti (between upper Kennebec River and Androscoggin River , western Maine) Androscoggin (Amariscoggin, Ameriscoggin, Anasaguniticook, Arosaguntacook, Asschincantecook). Important note - Main village, on
5712-505: The United States did not fare as well as their Canadian counterparts. The Missisquoi Abenaki Tribe (also called the "Sokoki-St. Francis Band of the Abenaki Nation") organized a tribal council in 1976 at Swanton, Vermont . Vermont granted recognition of the council the same year, but later withdrew it. In 1982, the band applied for federal recognition, which is still pending. Four Abenaki communities are located in Vermont. In 2006,
5814-440: The United States. There are about 3,200 Abenaki living in Vermont and New Hampshire, without reservations, chiefly around Lake Champlain . The remaining Abenaki people live in multi-racial towns and cities across Canada and the US, mainly in Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and northern New England. In December 2012, the Nulhegan Band of the Coosuk Abenaki Nation created a tribal forest in the town of Barton, Vermont . This forest
5916-400: The alliances and enemies of other tribes or of Europeans near the village. Abenaki villages were quite small with an average number of 100 residents. Most Abenaki crafted dome-shaped, bark-covered wigwams for housing, though a few preferred oval-shaped longhouses . During the winter, the Abenaki lined the inside of their conical wigwams with bear and deer skins for warmth. The Abenaki were
6018-403: The arrival of a contingent of 300 Abenaki warriors and their families from the Narransouac and Pentagouet missions in Maine. On 4 October 1759, Odanak was sacked and destroyed by a contingent of 200 men under the command of Major Robert Rogers . Rogers was ordered by Jeffery Amherst to seek retaliation for numerous raids and attacks perpetrated by Abenaki warriors on British settlements. Rogers
6120-486: The bands' arts and crafts. On May 7, 2012, the Abenaki Nation at Missisquoi and the Koasek of the Koas Abenaki Traditional Band received recognition by the State of Vermont. In New Hampshire the Abenaki, along with other Native American groups, have proposed legislation for recognition as a minority group. This bill was debated in 2010 in the state legislature . The bill would have created a state commission on Native American relations, which would act as an advisory group to
6222-443: The banks of the Chaudière River near the falls, before settling in Odanak and Wôlinak in the early eighteenth century. In those days, the Abenaki practiced a subsistence economy based on hunting, fishing, trapping, berry picking and on growing corn, beans, squash, potatoes and tobacco. They also produced baskets, made of ash and sweet grass, for picking wild berries, and boiled maple sap to make syrup. Basket weaving remains
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#17327648001316324-439: The decision to relocate the Jesuit mission "La Mission de Saint François de Sale" that was established in 1684 at the mouth of the Chaudière River to the banks of the St. François River following years of successive crop failure due to agricultural overexploitation. The new mission was to be established in close proximity to a small village of both Abenaki and Sokokis that Bigot had previously observed during his travels throughout
6426-469: The eastern Abenaki are Arsikantegou, Kwupahag (Kwapahag). Closer in language and culture to the Micmac, the Maliseet and Passamaquoddy have been listed as Abenaki for historical reasons. The French usually referred to both tribes as the Etchemin. Maliseet (Aroostook, Malecite, Malicite, St. John's Indians). From the Mi'kmaq word malisit meaning ' broken talker ' . Their own name Wulastegniak means ' good river people ' . They were located along
6528-476: The fading of generations, the number of speakers has declined. Abenaki had as few as twelve native speakers in 2015, but with recent focus and extra efforts in the Abenaki community, this number seems to be growing. Today, there are some passionate Abenaki, like Jeanne Brink , and non-Abenaki people who are trying to revitalize Abenaki culture, including their language and basket-making traditions. Currently, there are about 12,000 people of varying Abenaki heritage in
6630-407: The failure and withdrawal of Admiral Walker's fleet, the Abenaki would once again return to Odanak. In 1715, the village would be relocated once more. This time moving further downstream to the site of its current location situated high upon the bank of the St. François River to protect against seasonal flooding. Following the conclusion of Dummer's War in 1725, Odanak would be further reinforced by
6732-411: The federal courts as a tribe, but not having a land trust with the government since never entering into a formal treaty. This launched the very long legal battle that paved the way for many other tribes across America to file suits regarding asset mismanagement. After winning the landmark case, similar cases were filed in 2006 by 60 tribes from throughout the United States. Among the Passamaquoddy's assets
6834-421: The first half of the 20th century indicates that no Abenaki community actively existed in Vermont during that time period. Researcher Darryl Leroux characterizes the Vermont Abenaki's claims of Abenaki ancestry as " race-shifting ", arguing that genealogical and archival evidence shows that most members of the state-recognized tribes are descended from white French Canadians . Leroux found that only 2.2 percent of
6936-423: The frontiers of New England in the early 18th century. Other Abenaki tribes suffered several severe defeats in reprisal during Father Rale's War, particularly the capture of Norridgewock in 1724 and the defeat of the Pequawket in 1725, which greatly reduced their numbers. Odanak was first established in the year 1700. While traveling along the banks of the St. François River the Jesuit Priest Jacques Bigot made
7038-428: The language exclusively throughout the series, and Kalani Qweypo ( Squanto ) spoke both Abenaki and English. Western Abenaki language teacher Jesse Bruchac of Ndakinna Education Center was hired as a language consultant on the film. Eastern Abenaki dialects include Penobscot, Norridgewock, Caniba, Androscoggin, and Pequawket. Western Abenaki dialects are Arsigantegok, Missisquoi, Sokoki, Pennacook, and Odanak. Both
7140-443: The last major event that took place during the era of New France. Population estimates prior to 1759 are difficult due to the loss of records associated with the raid conducted by Major Rogers on 4 October 1759. Population trend: Mother tongue language (2021) Odanak is the site of the Musée des Abénakis (Abenaki Museum), dedicated to the history, culture, and art of the Western Abenaki people. Alanis Obomsawin (Abenaki),
7242-431: The latter half of the 19th century, word borrowing increased due to many Western Abenaki people being in close contact with summer resorts in Vermont and New Hampshire, as well as continued contact with French-Canadians. Notably, plural English nouns were borrowed into Western Abenaki as a singular form that were then made plural by adding Abenaki plural endings. For example, the word oxen was borrowed as asken 'an ox' that
7344-455: The limits of Pierreville and across the river from Saint-François-du-Lac . Odanak is an Abenaki word meaning "in the village". Beginning about 1000 CE, Iroquoian -speaking people settled along the St. Lawrence River , where they practiced agriculture along with hunting and fishing. Archeological surveys have revealed that by 1300, they built fortified villages similar to those seen and described by French explorer Jacques Cartier in
7446-493: The mid-16th century, when he visited Hochelaga and Stadacona . However, by 1600, the villages and people were gone. Since the 1950s, historians and anthropologists have used archeological and linguistic evidence to develop a consensus that the people formed a distinct ethnic group, whom they have called St. Lawrence Iroquoians . They spoke Laurentian and were separate from the powerful Iroquois Confederacy of nations that developed in present-day New York and Pennsylvania along
7548-460: The natives in New Hampshire. The numerous groups of natives in the state have created a New Hampshire Inter-tribal Council, which holds statewide meetings and powwows . Dedicated to preserving the culture of the natives in New Hampshire, the group is one of the chief supporters of the HB 1610; the Abenaki, the main tribe in the state, are the only people named specifically in the bill. A new generation
7650-545: The other near Bécancour (now known as Wôlinak ) on the south shore of the St. Lawrence River , directly across the river from Trois-Rivières . These two Abenaki reserves continue to grow and develop. Since the year 2000, the total Abenaki population (on and off reserve) has doubled to 2,101 members in 2011. Approximately 400 Abenaki reside on these two reserves, which cover a total area of less than 7 km (2.7 sq mi). The unrecognized majority are off-reserve members, living in various cities and towns across Canada and
7752-430: The petitioner is "a collection of individuals of claimed but mostly undemonstrated Indian ancestry with little or no social or historical connection with each other before the early 1970s." State recognition allows applicants to seek certain scholarship funds reserved for American Indians and to for members to market artwork as American Indian or Native American-made under the 1990 Indian Arts and Crafts Act . In 2002,
7854-514: The pre-contact Iroquois , were an imperialist, expansionist culture whose cultivation of the corn/beans/squash agricultural complex enabled them to support a large population. They made war primarily against neighboring Algonquian peoples , including the Abenaki. Muir uses archaeological data to argue that the Iroquois expansion onto Algonquian lands was checked by the Algonquian adoption of agriculture, which enabled them to support populations large enough to raise sufficient warriors to defend against
7956-564: The region in the winter of 1684–1685. At the request of the Governor General of New France Louis-Hector de Callière and the Intendant Jean Bochart de Champigny , Marguerite Hertel the widow of Jean Crevier de Saint-François and her son Joseph Crevier granted one "demi lieu" of land from their seigneury to the Abenakis which was accepted on behalf of Bigot on which the new mission was to be constructed. In 1704,
8058-754: The river of the same name was called Arosaguntacook Town. Arosaguntacook is sometimes applied in error to the St. Francois Indians. Kennebec (Caniba, Sagadahoc, Kanibesinnoak, Norridgewock, Nurhantsuak) lived along the Kennebec River in northern Maine. Penobscot (Pentagoet, Panaomeska). Meaning "rocky place", or "ledge place". Penobscot Tribe subdivisions and villages included: Moosehead Lake area tribes were known as "Moosehead Lake Indians". Villages: Agguncia, Asnela, Catawamtek, Kenduskeag, Mattawamkeag, Meecombe, Negas, Olamon, Oldtown, Passadumkeag, Pentagouet, Precaute, Segocket, and Wabigganus. Pigwacket (Pegouakki, Peguaki, Pequawket). Main village called Pequawket Town
8160-484: The side of the French, however; many remained on their native lands in the northern colonies. Much of the trapping was done by the people and traded to the English colonists for durable goods. These contributions by Native American Abenaki peoples went largely unreported. Two tribal communities formed in Canada, one once known as Saint-Francois-du-lac near Pierreville (now called Odanak , Abenaki for "coming home"), and
8262-610: The southern edges of the Great Lakes . Their disappearance by 1600 is believed to be due to attacks and decimation from the Mohawk people of the Iroquois Confederacy; they stood to gain the most by getting control of the hunting grounds along the St. Lawrence River and dominating the fur trade route on the river above Tadoussac , which was under Montagnais control. By the time of Samuel de Champlain 's arrival,
8364-482: The southern end of Abenaki territory, relations between the settlers and natives remained guarded. The religious leaders of the Massachusetts Bay Colony discouraged social interaction with the natives. By contrast, the French had already planted the colonies of New France in the northern part of Abenaki territory, and maintained reasonably cordial relations with the natives. Intermarriage between
8466-647: The state does not confer on or grant to other state residents." New Hampshire has considered expanding gambling separate from the Native Americans. The council would be under the Department of Cultural Resources, so it would be in the same department as the State Council on the Arts. The bill would allow for the creation and sale of goods to be labeled as native-made to create a source of income for
8568-687: The state of Vermont officially recognized the Abenaki as a people, but not a tribe. The Vermont Elnu ( Jamaica ) and Nulhegan ( Brownington ) bands' applications for official recognition were recommended and referred to the Vermont General Assembly by the Vermont Commission on Native American Affairs on January 19, 2011, as a result of a process established by the Vermont legislature in 2010. Recognition allows applicants to seek scholarship funds reserved for American Indians and to receive federal "native made" designation for
8670-659: The threat of Iroquois conquest. In 1614, six years before the Mayflower arrived in New England, English explorer and slaver Captain Thomas Hunt captured 24 indigenous people, including Wampanoag member Tisquantum from the Patuxet tribe in what would later become Massachusetts , and took them to Spain to sell as slaves . As a result, when the Mayflower landed and English settlers began to establish colonies in
8772-414: The three actors not only memorized their lines in Abenaki but also learned the syntax behind the language. This revitalization of the famous Thanksgiving story from a new tongue and perspective offered a more original and full version of what Thanksgiving might have really been like so many years ago. In his novel, L8dwaw8gan Wji Abaznodakaw8gan: The Language of Basket Making , Bruchac notes that Abenaki
8874-435: The village"), a First Nations Abenaki reserve near Pierreville, Quebec , and throughout New Hampshire , Vermont , and New York state. The language is polysynthetic , meaning that a phrase or an entire sentence is expressed by a single word. For example, the word for "white man" awanoch is a combination of the words awani meaning "who" and uji meaning "from". Thus, the word for "white man" literally translates to "Who
8976-466: The war ended. Some captives were adopted into the Mohawk and Abenaki tribes; older captives were generally ransomed, and the colonies carried on a brisk trade. The Third Abenaki War (1722–25), called the Dummer's War or Father Rale's War, erupted when the French Jesuit missionary Sébastien Rale (or Rasles, ~1657?-1724) encouraged the Abenaki to halt the spread of Yankee settlements. When
9078-429: The war ended. Some captives were adopted into the Mohawk and Abenaki tribes; older captives were generally ransomed, and the colonies carried on a brisk trade. The Third Abenaki War (1722–1725), called Dummer's War , erupted when the French Jesuit missionary Sébastien Rale (or Rasles, 1657?–1724) encouraged the Abenaki to halt the spread of Yankee settlements. When the Massachusetts militia tried to seize Rasles,
9180-401: The war. After Rale died, the Abenaki moved to a settlement on the St. Francis River . The Abenaki from St. Francois continued to raid British settlements in their former homelands along the New England frontier during Father Le Loutre's War (see Northeast Coast campaign (1750) ) and the French and Indian War . The development of tourism projects has allowed the Canadian Abenaki to develop
9282-530: The war. After Rale died, the Abenaki moved to a settlement on the St. Francis River. The Abenaki from St. Francois continued to raid British colonial settlements in their former homelands along the New England frontier during Father Le Loutre's War (see Northeast Coast Campaign (1750) ) and the French and Indian War . Due to French and English contact with Western Abenaki people in the 1640s and earlier, many loan words were quickly incorporated into Western Abenaki and have stayed for nearly four centuries. During
9384-616: The western Pennacook as Sokoki: Amoskeag, Naamkeek, Nashaway, Souheyan, and Winnipesaukee. Sokoki is often confused with the Saco, a name given to eastern Abenaki who lived near the Saco River (a combination of Pigwacket, Kennebec, and Androscoggin). Cowasuck (Cahass, Cohassiac, Coos, Coosuc, Koes). Hoosac was a mixed settlement with the Mahican. Missisquoi (Mazipskoik, Misiskuoi, Missiassik, Missique, Missisco) means ' place of flint ' . It
9486-547: Was $ 13.5 million in federal funds that were allocated to the tribe in 1980 through the Maine Indian Claims Settlement Act, which was settled for $ 81.5 million. Many Abenaki living in Vermont have been assimilated , and only small remnants remained on reservations during and after the French and Indian War . Facing annihilation, many Abenaki had begun emigrating to Canada, then under French control, around 1669. The Abenaki who chose to remain in
9588-557: Was able to take advantage of the absence of the majority of Abenaki warriors who were serving under the command of French General Montcalm in the defense of Quebec City. Rogers men subsequently destroyed and set fire to entirety of the village destroying the mission's records and archives. Casualty estimates from this attack vary considerably depending on the accounts with Roger's claiming 200 dead and 20 captives (both women and children) while French accounts claim 30 dead, 20 of whom were identified as being women and children. This would mark
9690-664: Was established with assistance from the Vermont Sierra Club and the Vermont Land Trust . It contains a hunting camp and maple sugaring facilities that are administered cooperatively by the Nulhegan. The forest contains 65 acres (0.26 km). The Missiquoi Abenaki Tribe owns forest land in the town of Brunswick, Vermont , centered around the Brunswick Springs. These springs are believed to be
9792-698: Was located on the eastern shore of Lake Champlain. Schaghticoke. Mixed Mahican and New England Algonquin on the Hudson River north of Albany, New York. Squakheag (Squaeg, Squawkeag). Mixed population and probably at various times was occupied by any of these tribes. Aquadocta, Cobbosseecontee, Ebenecook, Ketangheanycke, Mascoma, Masherosqueck, Mecadacut, Moshoquen, Muscongus, Negusset, Ossaghrage, Ouwerage, Pasharanack, Pauhuntanuc, Pemaquid, Pocopassum, Sabino, Sagadahoc, Satquin, Segotago, Sowocatuck, Taconnet, Unyjaware, and Wacoogo. ...end of section needing more work--> The development of tourism projects has allowed
9894-423: Was located on the upper Saco River. Rocameca Upper Androscoggin River. Wewenoc (Ouanwinak, Sheepscot, Wawenock, Wawnock) Coastal areas of southern Maine. Wolinak (Becancour) Trois-Rivieres, Quebec. Amaseconti (Amesokanti, Anmissoukanti), Norridgewock (Naridgewalk, Neridgewok, Noronjawoke), Kennebec, and Sagadahoc. Ossipee: located on a lake of the same name in east-central New Hampshire. Other names associated with
9996-555: Was on the Saint Francis River and is now known as the Odanak Indian Reservation; the second was founded near Bécancour and is called the Wolinak Indian Reservation. When the Wampanoag under Metacomet , also called "King Philip", fought the English colonists in New England in 1675 in King Philip's War , the Abenaki joined the Wampanoag. For three years there was fighting along
10098-406: Was pluralized into aksenak . Similarly, the word potatoes was borrowed as badades 'potato' that was pluralized into badadesak . Amaseconti, Androscoggin , Kennebec , Maliseet , Ouarastegouiak, Passamaquoddy , Patsuiket , Penobscot , Pigwacket , Rocameca , Sokoni , and Wewenoc . Seven mission orientated communities along the St. Lawrence River in 1750: Caughnawaga (Mohawk), Lake of
10200-581: Was settled by a peace treaty in 1678, with the Wampanoag more than decimated and many native survivors having been sold into slavery in Bermuda. During Queen Anne's War in 1702, the Abenaki were allied with the French; they raided numerous English colonial settlements in Maine, from Wells to Casco , killing about 300 settlers over ten years. They also occasionally raided into Massachusetts, for instance in Groton and Deerfield in 1704. The raids stopped when
10302-524: Was spoken in New Hampshire, Vermont, north-western Massachusetts, and southern Quebec. Odanak, Quebec is a First Nations reserve located near the Saint-François River—;these peoples were referred to as Saint Francis Indians by English writers after the 1700s. The few remaining speakers of Western Abenaki live predominantly in Odanak and the last fully fluent speaker, Cécile (Wawanolett) Joubert died in 2006. A revitalization effort
10404-504: Was started in Odanak in 1994; however, as of 2004 younger generations are not learning the language and the remaining speakers are elderly, making Western Abenaki nearly extinct. Eastern Abenaki languages are spoken by several peoples, including the Penobscot of what is now Maine . The last known natively fluent speaker of Penobscot Abenaki, Madeline Shay, died in 1993. However, several Penobscot elders still speak Penobscot, and there
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