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49-588: Their authenticity varies. The most reliable derive from accounts of trials such as that of Saint Cyprian or of the Scillitan Martyrs , although some claim that the latter has been embellished with miraculous and apocryphal material. But very few of these trial accounts survive. A second, the Passiones, includes the martyrdoms of Saint Ignatius of Antioch , Saint Polycarp , and the Martyrs of Lyons,

98-485: A literary point of view, common characters, since they are all the result of an elaboration and compositional process typical of hagiographic literature. The tendency to the schematic form has a remote origin, and whose footprint, already manifested in ancient texts, is very close to the type and narrative sincerity of the original story. This has happened, for example, in the Martyrium Polycarpi , in which it

147-491: A living; the particularly religious and devout environment of the Middle Ages , favored by the monks who were among the most active writers of the hagiographic texts. Dispensing from the first records collected, which are incomplete and are already considered lost, it can be said that the first compiler was Eusebius of Cesarea , of whom the title of the writing of martyribus is known, which unfortunately has been lost. On

196-592: A mistake often repeated. The legend is given in Greek and Latin in Acta SS. September, VII. Ancient Syriac and Ethiopic versions of it have been published. Their story is told in the Golden Legend . The outline of the legend or allegory is found with diffuse descriptions and dialogues in the unreliable Symeon Metaphrastes and was made the subject of a poem by Empress Aelia Eudocia . Cyprian, known by

245-415: A powerful spirit of grace. The conversion of Cyprian had a great effect on the pagan gentleman who paid his addresses to Justina, and he in a short time embraced Christianity. During the persecutions of Diocletian, Cyprian and Justina were seized upon as Christians, the former was torn with pincers, and the latter chastised; and, after suffering other torments, both were beheaded." Their feast day appeared in

294-405: A rather vague idea of the purpose of its collection, only intended to make known the oldest and most trustworthy document for each of the martyrs, with the intention of excluding falsified documents. In 1882, Edmond-Frederic Le Blant had the idea to continue and complete the compilation of Ruinart and added another group of records, which he considered authentic by the adequacy of the narrative with

343-481: A saint's name to a particular place. The expression Acta Martyrum generally applies to all narrative texts about the deaths of the martyrs, but it possesses a more precise and restricted meaning when referring, in technical terms, to the official records of the processes and convictions. These official records were shorthands and were transcribed by the officials of the court chancery ( notarius exceptor ) to be preserved in its archives. Due to this relationship with

392-456: A similar scheme, the evolutionary process of the passions develops (throughout the centuries IV to XX), with successive enrichments and formal improvements, including fantasies, common places, and errors, due to both ignorance and blind piety of the hagiographers. These unsubstantiated relationships can be broken down like this: The same happened with the narrations of the pains and tortures, prolonged and multiplied without saving prodigies made by

441-431: A similar task as far as Rome is concerned, trustworthy. Information about the other communities is still less certain. During the persecutions of Diocletian there must have been a wholesale destruction of documents. There are no traces suggesting that the churches were involved in restoring the destroyed hagiographic texts after the persecution ended. The events of later centuries, such as the western Germanic invasions in

490-654: Is a popular name for a grimoire in Scandinavian folklore. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Sts. Cyprian and Justina". Catholic Encyclopedia . New York: Robert Appleton Company. Germanic Wars Gallic Wars (58 BC – 57 BC) Clades Lolliana (16 BC) Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16) Marcomannic Wars (166–180) ( participating Roman units ) Roman campaigns in Germania during

539-584: Is mentioned in Foxe's Book of Martyrs . It was under the 10th Persecution in 303 AD while Diocletian was Emperor of Rome. It says: " In the course of time he [Cyprian] became acquainted with Justina, a young lady of Antioch, whose birth, beauty, and accomplishments, rendered her the admiration of all who knew her. A pagan gentleman applied to Cyprian, to promote his suit with the beautiful Justina; this he undertook, but soon himself converted, burnt his books of astrology and magic, received baptism, and felt animated with

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588-402: Is possible to recognize the attempt of the hagiographer to assimilate the death of the martyr to that of Christ. This theme of the martyr who imitates Christ, appears already in the first Christian writers. From the fourth century on, certain patterns or essential criteria are fixed, and the hagiographers adopt certain narrative characteristics that became the literary genre of the passions . In

637-649: The Diocletianic Persecution , suffered martyrdom at Nicomedia (modern-day İzmit , Turkey ) on September 26. According to Roman Catholic sources, no Bishop of Antioch bore the name of Cyprian. The historian of religion Gilles Quispel has argued that the story of Cyprian is a prototype of the Faust story. The story must have arisen as early as the 4th century, as it is mentioned by both St. Gregory Nazianzen and Prudentius ; both, nevertheless, have conflated Cyprian with St. Cyprian of Carthage ,

686-471: The Eastern Church , where the numerous passions were collected in abbreviated form in the liturgical books, for example, in the saints ( menaea ), in which an appointment was introduced for each day of the 12 months of the year about the life and martyrdom of the saint. The same happened with the menologies ( menology ), also divided into 12 volumes, corresponding to the 12 months of the year; in them

735-748: The General Roman Calendar of Roman Rite from the thirteenth century until it was deleted in 1969 because of the lack of historical evidence of their existence. Their names were also removed from the 2001 revision of the Roman Martyrology , the official but professedly incomplete list of saints recognized by the Roman Catholic Church . The Roman Martyrology, however, includes five other saints called Cyprian and two named Justina. Some traditionalist Catholics continue to observe their feast based on pre-1970 versions of

784-704: The Western Roman Empire that started in the late second century BC, and more. The series of conflicts was one factor which led to the ultimate downfall of the Western Roman Empire in particular and ancient Rome in general in 476. Battles of Idistaviso and the Angrivarian Wall . 254 267–269 Gothic War (323–332) Gothic War (367–369) Gothic War (376–382) Gothic War (401–403) Radagaisus' invasion Visigothic Wars Gothic War (535–554) For

833-650: The 230s Gothic invasion of the Balkans (250–251) Gothic invasion of the Balkans (254) Gothic invasion of the Balkans (267–268) Roman–Alemannic Wars Gothic War (367–369) Gothic War (376–382) Visigothic Wars Vandalic Wars Anglo-Saxon Wars Vandalic War (533–534) Gothic War (535–554) This is a chronology of warfare between the Romans and various Germanic peoples . The nature of these wars varied through time between Roman conquest, Germanic uprisings, later Germanic invasions of

882-669: The Bollandists. In recent years, a series of principles and norms of hagiographic criticism have been exposed in relation to the records by several specialists, such as H. Achelis, J. Geffken, and A. Harnack in Germany; P. Allard and J. Leclercq in France ; the Jesuit F. Grossi-Gondi, Luigi Lanzoni, and Pio Franchi de 'Cavalieri in Italy . The most valuable contribution, however, is due to

931-522: The Roman Calendar. The Spanish author, Pedro Calderón de la Barca , took the story as the basis of a drama: El mágico prodigioso . In 2005, American author Tono Rondone published a novel, The Martyrs , which is a continuation of this tradition. The Great Book of Saint Cyprian is full of prayers and spells, and is widely sold in the Portuguese- and Spanish-speaking world. Cyprianus

980-512: The Roman legal phrases. The criterion of Le Blant is not firm and shows once again how difficult it is to authenticate records; the various authentic Acta Martyrum lists, which other authors have sketched or compiled later, do not represent the result of a rigorous and scientific analysis, but rather are amendments of Ruinart's work. With much greater seriousness, although very slowly, they are occupied with these works according to an organic plan by

1029-545: The Venerable in the eighth century and Florus of Lyon , Atto and Usuard in the ninth century. These had at their disposal the data of the passions and adapted them to the liturgical commemoration of the calendar; some of them, especially Adón, had no critical concern and used the texts without evaluating them, confusing and distorting data and news. Because of such information, these medieval martyrologies were called historical martyrologies . Something similar happened in

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1078-605: The bank of the Gallus River, a tributary of the Sangarius River . The same fate befell a man named Theoctistus, who upon observing Cyprian's faith, declared himself a Christian. After the bodies of the saints had lain unburied for six days, they were taken by Christian sailors to Rome , where they were interred on the estate of a noble lady named Rufina and later entombed in Constantine's basilica . Justina

1127-407: The bolandist H. Delehaye, from whose writings it would be possible to extract a critical summation. He has contributed, in effect, the safest classification of the records; he has pointed out the various components of a martyr's dossier; he has reconstructed the iteration of the legend, underscoring the special function of the massa and local traditions; he has studied hagiographic documents parallel to

1176-533: The commemorations of all the martyrs, which grouped the oldest martyrologies of the churches. This fact is important because the compilation of many of the passions is intimately related to this martyrology, which served as a starting point. Later, parallel to the disclosure of the narratives of the Gesta Martyrum , there was a need to synthesize them into succinct stories, including those in the most known martyrologies at that time: those composed by Saint Bede

1225-446: The contemporary and direct nature of the information presented; the next two groupings contain stories that, in varying degrees, are based on at least partially reliable data; the last two, on the other hand, are true fantasies without historical basis. Following the same criteria as Delehaye, the texts can be classified into three simpler groups: Except for the official records, all of the narrative documents mentioned above offer, from

1274-451: The court of the proconsul , they were also called "proconsulares" ( Acta proconsularia ). Once the distinction is made, the name of the act is reserved for the verbal processes (such as Acta Martyrum Scyllitanorum), while for references relating to the martyrs, the name of passio is applied in all of its diverse forms (Gesta, martyrium, Legenda). Such a distinction is also justified by the different purpose and nature of both types of documents:

1323-504: The demons" to Justina, who likewise was conquered by a certain " Sign of Christ ". Brought to despair, Cyprian made the Sign himself and in this way was freed from the toils of Satan . Cyprian summarily burned any books of spells and sorcery in his possession in front of a bishop of the Church, sealing his commitment to a new life as a Christian. He was baptized and received into the Church and

1372-505: The famous Acts of Perpetua and Felicitas , and the Passion of Saint Irenaeus. In these accounts, miraculous elements are restricted, which proved to be unpopular and was often later embellished with legendary material. A third category category includes accounts that are believed by some to be largely or purely legendary. The Acts of Saint Catherine of Alexandria and those of Saint George fall into this category. Eusebius of Caesarea

1421-412: The fifth (V) and sixth (VI) centuries, may have consummated the irreparable loss of the writings still preserved. Given the enormous number of hagiographic texts and the heterogeneous nature of their origin, authority, and value, critics have proposed a classification to guide their study. It has been observed that a classification of the texts based on the criterion of the authenticity of the martyr or

1470-417: The first place, the legal tone of the Roman criminal process in the first records has been preserved; sometimes even some of the passions make reference to it, showing how, on more than one occasion, the lost records served as sources. The introductory formula of the consular date of the records preserves the indication of the emperor , governor or proconsul, even in historically erroneous cases. The phases of

1519-515: The legitimacy of his cult is not valid or useful. Similarly, a classification based on extrinsic characteristics, such as the one that divides the hagiographic documents in Acta, Passiones, Vitae, Miracula, Translationes, etc., also lacks value, according to the object of the story. Neither does the classification meet the demands of criticism of two large groups, contemporary documents, and subsequent documents, since it does not express anything about

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1568-422: The martyr, adorned with the spectacular element provided by fantasy and legend . In this transformation and development, negative from the critical point of view, several factors influenced to a considerable degree: the spread of the cult of the relics , with the inevitable abuses easily imaginable; veneration of the martyred saint, patron saint of the city, monastery or church, which obliged him to find or invent

1617-432: The memory of their martyrs, as proven by the news referenced in the story of the martyrdom of Polycarp (m. 156), whose memory was venerated annually in İzmir . Cyprian used to recommend his clerics take detailed notes of the deaths of the martyrs. These valuable testimonies were also the oldest news about the martyrs. According to what is known to date, there is no precise idea of the extent to which Christians transcribed

1666-438: The narrative texts, such as martyrologies and synaxes; and he has established the different value of literary, liturgical, and monumental sources, specifically establishing that of chronological and topographical data (doctrine of hagiographic coordinates). In summary, he has outlined and perfected the discipline of the method. It has been said, with a certain air of reproach, that the hagiographic criticism has been interested until

1715-561: The other hand, Martyribus Palestinae is preserved. This was the only collection known in Rome during the sixth century, in the time of St. Gregory the Great , as the Pope himself informed the bishop and patriarch of Alexandria , Eulogio, who had requested documentation about the collections of Gesta Martyrum . At almost the same time, a great martyrology was forming, called Jeronimiano, with

1764-408: The other hand, it did not prove easy for Christians to obtain copies of the verbal processes that were saved in the proconsular archive; on occasion, large sums had to be paid.. No precedents have been preserved that allow us to know if the Church of Rome , which had organized a section of notaries, took the initiative of collecting the records of its martyrs, nor is the news that Julius Africanus did

1813-603: The other hand, were recast arbitrarily in other compilations later printed and translated in vulgar language; thus constituting a copious literature that reaches until the Renaissance . It is difficult to determine the authenticity of the Acta Martyrum . The first attempt to determine the authentic records was that of Benedictine Thierry Ruinart , who collected and published 117 texts that he considered genuine. These were not of equal provenance, since only 74 contained

1862-568: The passions are synthesized in a more extensive way than in the preceding ones. In the tenth century, Symeon the Metaphrast composed a menology, reading, transcribing, and adapting fragments of ancient passions, some of which only survive through him. During the Late Middle Ages , numerous collections of Lives of Saints, Passionists, Legendaries, etc. were made, which are still found in various codices of European libraries; others, on

1911-416: The present, almost exclusively in the problems related to the authenticity and chronology of the document, neglecting the social aspect and the environment in which it was written, aspects that in turn help determine the same chronology. It has been insisted, therefore, on the need to "identify the cultural and religious concepts expressed in the document and establish a reference to the social environment where

1960-470: The procedure—arrest, appearance, interrogation, torture , judgment and torment—preserve and constitute the structure of the narrative; likewise, the protagonists, usually few in number, of the ancient records are preserved: the martyr, the judge or magistrate, and the executioner ; in the second place, the Christian spectators who animate their companion; and, finally, the hostile mass of the pagans . On

2009-477: The records are destitute of all hagiographic character, while the passions are characterized by their purpose and edifying religious sense. The preserved records are limited to about a dozen fragments, so most of the narrative texts about the martyrs are the Passions. The scarcity of official records and direct documentation has been controversial. The old Christian communities had a great interest in maintaining

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2058-403: The records of the processes; it is undoubtedly very likely that some of those who witnessed the development of stenography in their text, in the same manner as the notarius of the court, gave it to the community for preservation in the archives of the church . This hypothesis seems to be confirmed by the details and notes of the judge or martyr and seems to interrupt the rigid protocol form. On

2107-581: The text comes from and to which it is addressed". [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). " Acts of the Martyrs ". Catholic Encyclopedia . New York: Robert Appleton Company. Cyprian and Justina Saints Cyprian and Justina ( Greek : Κυπριανός & Ίουστίνη) are honored in the Catholic Church , Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodoxy as Christians of Antioch , who in 304, during

2156-426: The text of the passions, while the rest were paragraphs and fragments taken from old Christian writers like Eusebio, John Chrysostom , Basil and Prudentius , whose hymns had extracted paragraphs about the martyrs Hippolytus of Rome and Saint Lawrence . In most cases they are historical figures, but the selection of the texts was not systematic, nor was it accompanied by a critical analysis. The Benedictine, who had

2205-541: The title of "the Magician", to distinguish him from Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage , received a liberal education in his youth, and particularly applied himself to astrology; after which he traveled for improvement through Greece, Egypt, India, etc. Cyprian was a magician in Antioch and dealt in sorcery. Justina is known for converting Cyprian, and is said to have been a young woman who took private vows of chastity . She

2254-409: The value of the document. According to Hippolyte Delehaye , the safest criterion is based on the degree of sincerity and historicity offered by the literary genre of the document. According to this criterion, six groups of texts are established: Considering the elements that distinguish the six groups, it is possible to verify that the first and the second refer to a uniform type of text, owing to

2303-510: Was killed during the persecutions of the Roman emperor Diocletian in the year 304 AD. A would-be suitor – a pagan lawyer – sought the aid of Cyprian's magic to induce Justina into marrying him. Cyprian sent a demon to torment Justina, hoping to arouse carnal passions within her. The charms and spells had no effect on Justina, who, in chastity and purity, spent her time in prayer and fasting. Cyprian again employed sorcery, sending "the chief of

2352-456: Was likely the first Christian author to produce a collection of Acts of the Martyrs. A related form of writing was chivalric romances , which either preserved a few kernels of fact in popular or literary tradition, or were works of pure imagination. Nonetheless, the were intended was to edify rather than deceive the reader. Romances should be separated from hagiographical forgeries, whose intent alter history by, for example, falsely attaching

2401-542: Was made preeminent by miraculous gifts. Cyprian then became, in succession, a deacon , priest , and finally, bishop after being named as the successor to Anthimus, bishop of Antioch, while Justina became abbess of a convent . During the Diocletian Persecution , both were seized and taken to Damascus , where they were tortured. As their faith never wavered, they were brought before Diocletian at Nicomedia, where at his command they were beheaded on

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