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107-531: Acrobatic traditions are found in many cultures, and there is evidence that the earliest such traditions occurred thousands of years ago. For example, Minoan art from c.  2000 BC contains depictions of acrobatic feats on the backs of bulls . Ancient Greeks practiced acrobatics, and the noble court displays of the European Middle Ages would often include acrobatic performances that included juggling . In China , acrobatics have been

214-486: A pier-and-door partition . By opening or closing the doors, occupants could control light and airflow, transforming the hall into either an interior or exterior space. Few artifacts have been found in the halls themselves, leaving little evidence of the activity that went on there. However, several examples are located near tablet archives, raising the possibility that they were used as meeting places for bureaucrats. Lustral basins are small rectangular chambers sunk into

321-407: A redistributive economy . Thus, their development is often taken as a sign of social stratification and formation of state-level societies on Crete. While this view is still widespread among scholars, it has also been questioned. In particular, the functions of the palaces seem to have varied by time and by site, and many seemingly palatial functions also took place in other kinds of buildings. Thus,

428-428: A Mycenaean market, or Mycenaean overlords of Crete. While Minoan figures, whether human or animal, have a great sense of life and movement, they are often not very accurate, and the species is sometimes impossible to identify; by comparison with Ancient Egyptian art they are often more vivid, but less naturalistic. In comparison with the art of other ancient cultures there is a high proportion of female figures, though

535-423: A Paris suburb by Viktor Vasnetsov . Acrobalance is a floor based acrobatic art that involves balances, lifts and creating shapes performed in pairs or groups. Acro dance is a style of dance that combines classical dance technique with precision acrobatic elements. Aerial is acrobatics performed in the air on a suspended apparatus. A trapeze is a short horizontal bar hung by ropes or metal straps from

642-413: A central court and archives. It was also fortified, including with watchtowers. It had a central court, though a tiny one only 6m by 13m which was shrunk to 4.9 m by 12 m in later phases. At Kommos , a grandiose structure known as Building T had a paved rectangular court surrounded by monumental wings much like the palaces. Comparable in size to the palace at Phaistos , its facade was constructed from

749-851: A common architectural vocabulary and organization, including distinctive room types such as the lustral basin and the pillar crypt . However, each palace was unique, and their appearances changed dramatically as they were continually remodeled throughout their lifespans. The palaces' function is a topic of continuing debate in Minoan archaeology. Despite the modern term "palace", it is generally agreed that they did not primarily serve as royal residences. They are known to have contained shrines , open areas for communal festivals, industrial workshops, as well as storage magazines for large agricultural surpluses. Archives of Linear A and Linear B tablets suggest that they served in part as local administrative centers. The first palaces were constructed around 1900 BC, as

856-508: A competitive sport. Minoan civilization The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age culture which was centered on the island of Crete . Known for its monumental architecture and energetic art , it is often regarded as the first civilization in Europe. The ruins of the Minoan palaces at Knossos and Phaistos are popular tourist attractions. The Minoan civilization developed from

963-430: A concentration of political and economic power. The tablets mention 100 place names, which seem economically tied to Knossos. The tablets record enormous quantities of goods, particularly sheep and textiles, but also grain and other produce. The quantities go far beyond what would be needed for local subsitence, suggesting that the palace administered a vibrant export economy. The date of the final destruction of Knossos

1070-468: A crucial source of information on the economics and social organization in the final year of the palace. Minoan sites continue to be excavated, recent discoveries including the necropolis at Armeni and the harbour town of Kommos . The modern term "Minoan" is derived from the name of the mythical King Minos , who the Classical Greeks believed to have ruled Knossos in the distant past. It

1177-659: A gradual shift from localized clan-based villages towards the more urbanized and stratified society of later periods. EM I (c. 3100-2650 BC) is marked by the appearance of the first painted ceramics. Continuing a trend that began during the Neolithic, settlements grew in size and complexity, and spread from fertile plains towards highland sites and islands as the Minoans learned to exploit less hospitable terrain. EM II (c. 2650-2200 BC) has been termed an international era. Trade intensified and Minoan ships began sailing beyond

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1284-564: A part of the culture since the Tang dynasty (618–907). Acrobatics were part of village harvest festivals . During the Tang dynasty, acrobatics saw much the same sort of development as European acrobatics saw during the Middle Ages, with court displays during the 7th through 10th century dominating the practice. Acrobatics continues to be an important part of modern Chinese variety art . Though

1391-464: A place called Da-wo . However, both writing and sealing predate the construction of the palaces and were never exclusive to them. For instance, there is less evidence of administrative bureaucracy at the Palace of Phaistos than at non-palatial buildings in nearby Ayia Triada . Similarly, even in eras where there is clear evidence of palace-based redistribution, there was still economic activity outside

1498-420: A public court and an ashlar facade, and may have served a similar administrative function to the palaces. However, its layout and quality of masonry differ from the canonical palaces. Similar considerations apply to a building at Petras, which mixes classic palatial features with characteristics adopted from earlier regional architectural traditions. The multistory building served as an administrative center with

1605-438: A smaller audience of elites. The Sacred Grove Fresco appears to depict such a ritual at Knossos, the west court identifiable by the causeways. The Minoan Hall has been referred to as "the very essence of Minoan architecture". Typically found on the palaces' north sides, they consisted of a main room, a forehall, and a lightwell. The latter was separated from the main room by a series of wooden doors mounted on piers, called

1712-457: A study of Minoan architecture, John McEnroe comments that "the distinction between 'Palatial' and 'non-Palatial' is often a matter of degree." Monumental buildings at Petras , Zominthos , Makrygiallos , Kommos , Monastiraki , and Archanes had palatial features such as central courts but otherwise do not pattern with the palaces in terms of form or function. At Gournia, a monumental Neopalatial building adopted palatial features including

1819-467: A support. Trapeze acts may be static , spinning (rigged from a single point), swinging or flying , and may be performed solo, double, triple or as a group act. Corde lisse is a skill or act that involves acrobatics on a vertically hanging rope. The name is French for "smooth rope". Cloud swing is a skill that usually combines static and swinging trapeze skills, drops, holds and rebound lifts. Cradle (also known as aerial cradle or casting cradle)

1926-435: A variety of techniques. The most famous of these are a few inlaid with elaborate scenes in gold and silver set against a black (or now black) " niello " background, whose actual material and technique have been much discussed. These have long thin scenes running along the centre of the blade, which show the violence typical of the art of Mycenaean Greece, as well as a sophistication in both technique and figurative imagery that

2033-496: A wall. They share similar tendencies in organization, for instance having their main storage magazines and industrial areas in the north and northwest wings. Palaces were typically at the center of a larger settlement and are not always clearly demarcated from the rest of the town. Despite their common architectural vocabulary, each palace was distinct. For instance, while the palaces share a common overall organization, their specific floorplans are unique. Similarly, while they share

2140-471: A well-attested language family such as Indo-European or Semitic . After 1450 BC, a modified version of Linear A known as Linear B was used to write Mycenaean Greek , which had become the language of administration on Crete. The Eteocretan language attested in a few post-Bronze Age inscriptions may be a descendant of the Minoan language. Largely forgotten after the Late Bronze Age collapse ,

2247-399: Is a circular steel apparatus (resembling a hula hoop ) suspended from the ceiling or a frame, on which artists may perform aerial acrobatics. It can be used static, spinning, or swinging. Contortion (sometimes contortionism) is a performance art in which performers called contortionists showcase their skills of extreme physical flexibility Tightrope walking , also called funambulism, is

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2354-414: Is a type of aerial circus skill in which a performer hangs by their knees from a large rectangular frame and swings, tosses, and catches another performer Aerial silks is a type of aerial skill in which one or more artists perform aerial acrobatics while hanging from a long length of fabric suspended from a frame or ceiling. Aerial hoop (also known as the lyra , aerial ring or cerceau / cerceaux' )

2461-590: Is aligned with Mount Juktas . The central courts at Knossos, Phaistos, and Malia were nearly identical in area, measuring roughly 24 by 52 meters. Zakros had a smaller central court, roughly 12 by 29 meters. The central courts were used for rituals and festivals. One of these festivals is believed to be depicted in the Grandstand Fresco found at Knossos. Altars found in the courts of some palaces suggest other kinds of ritual activity. Some scholars have suggested that bull-leaping would have taken place in

2568-587: Is certain regarding their pantheon . The Minoans constructed enormous labyrinthine buildings which their initial excavators labeled Minoan palaces . Subsequent research has shown that they served a variety of religious and economic purposes rather than being royal residences, though their exact role in Minoan society is a matter of continuing debate. The Minoans traded extensively, exporting agricultural products and luxury crafts in exchange for raw metals which were difficult to obtain on Crete. Through traders and artisans, their cultural influence reached beyond Crete to

2675-555: Is comparable to butter in northern European cuisine. The process of fermenting wine from grapes was probably a factor of the "Palace" economies; wine would have been a trade commodity and an item of domestic consumption. Farmers used wooden plows , bound with leather to wooden handles and pulled by pairs of donkeys or oxen . Seafood was also important in Cretan cuisine. The prevalence of edible molluscs in site material and artistic representations of marine fish and animals (including

2782-676: Is far from clear; one room in Akrotiri has been argued to be a bedroom, with remains of a bed, or a shrine. Animals, including an unusual variety of marine fauna, are often depicted; the Marine Style is a type of painted palace pottery from MM III and LM IA that paints sea creatures including octopus spreading all over the vessel, and probably originated from similar frescoed scenes; sometimes these appear in other media. Scenes of hunting and warfare, and horses and riders, are mostly found in later periods, in works perhaps made by Cretans for

2889-523: Is generally supposed. Or perhaps in T we see an adaptation of the palace form for commercial purposes. During the Neopalatial era, ordinary houses took on characteristics of palatial architecture including Minoan Halls, lustral basins, and mason's marks. This trend has been referred to as "palatialization". Alternate terms "Knossosification" and "the Versailles effect" have been proposed, though it

2996-515: Is in part due to the possible presence of dwarf elephants in contemporary Egyptian art. Not all plants and flora were purely functional, and arts depict scenes of lily-gathering in green spaces. The fresco known as the Sacred Grove at Knossos depicts women facing left, flanked by trees. Some scholars have suggested that it is a harvest festival or ceremony to honor the fertility of the soil. Artistic depictions of farming scenes also appear on

3103-467: Is indicated by the construction of terraces and dams at Pseira in the Late Minoan period. Cretan cuisine included wild game: Cretans ate wild deer, wild boar and meat from livestock. Wild game is now extinct on Crete. A matter of controversy is whether Minoans made use of the indigenous Cretan megafauna, which are typically thought to have been extinct considerably earlier at 10,000   BC. This

3210-427: Is notably poor in metals, a fact believed to have spurred the Minoans' interest in international trade. The island is seismically active, with signs of earthquake damage at many Minoan sites. The majority of Minoan sites are found in central and eastern Crete, with few in the western part of the island, especially to the south. The Minoans were traders, and their cultural contacts reached Egypt , Cyprus , Canaan and

3317-474: Is often described as having a fantastical or ecstatic quality, with figures rendered in a manner suggesting motion. Little is known about the structure of Minoan society. Minoan art contains no unambiguous depiction of a monarch, and textual evidence suggests they may have had some other form of governance. Likewise, it is unclear whether there was ever a unified Minoan state. Religious practices included worship at peak sanctuaries and sacred caves , but nothing

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3424-686: Is pre-ceramic Neolithic farming-community remains which date to about 7000   BC. A comparative study of DNA haplogroups of modern Cretan men showed that a male founder group, from Anatolia or the Levant , is shared with the Greeks. The Neolithic population lived in open villages. Fishermen's huts were found on the shores, and the fertile Messara Plain was used for agriculture. Early Minoan society developed largely continuously from local Neolithic predecessors, with some cultural influence and perhaps migration from eastern populations. This period saw

3531-639: Is startlingly original in a Greek context. Metal vessels were produced in Crete from at least as early as EM II (c. 2500   BC) in the Prepalatial period through to LM IA (c. 1450   BC) in the Postpalatial period and perhaps as late as LM IIIB/C (c. 1200   BC), although it is likely that many of the vessels from these later periods were heirlooms from earlier periods. The earliest were probably made exclusively from precious metals , but from

3638-410: Is thought to have had a religious significance; bull's heads are also a popular subject in terracotta and other sculptural materials. There are no figures that appear to be portraits of individuals, or are clearly royal, and the identities of religious figures is often tentative, with scholars uncertain whether they are deities, clergy or devotees. Equally, whether painted rooms were "shrines" or secular

3745-454: Is unclear. It appears to have burned at the end of LM IIIA1 (c. 1370 BC) and possibly again at the end of LM IIIA2 (c. 1330 BC). In its final years, possibly during LM IIIB (c. 1330-1200 BC), it was partly restored as a merely utilitarian building. No new frescoes were painted, and collapsed colonnades and pier-and-door partitions were replaced with minimal rubble walls. Corridors were blocked off, elegant rooms were repurposed for storage, and even

3852-461: Is unknown. The term "lustral basin" was coined by Arthur Evans, who found unguent flasks in a lustral basin at Knossos and inferred that it had been used for annointing rituals. Subsequent researchers have interpreted them as forefunners of the classical-era adyton or as the locus of an initiation ritual. An alternate hypothesis regards them as baths, though they lack drains and show no signs of water weathering. Lustral basins were added to

3959-728: The Harvester Vase (an egg-shaped rhyton ), which depicts 27 men led by another carrying bunches of sticks to beat ripe olives from the trees. Minoan palace Minoan palaces were massive building complexes built on Crete during the Bronze Age . They are often considered emblematic of the Minoan civilization and are modern tourist destinations. Archaeologists generally recognize five structures as palaces, namely those at Knossos , Phaistos , Malia , Galatas , and Zakros . Minoan palaces consisted of multistory wings surrounding an open rectangular central court. They shared

4066-741: The Early Iron Age . The Minoan Civilization was centered on the island of Crete , with additional settlements around the Aegean Sea . Crete is located in the south of the Aegean, situated along maritime trade routes that connect Europe , Africa , and the Middle East . Because it straddles the Mediterranean and African climate zones, with land at a variety of elevations, it provides a diverse array of natural resources. However, it

4173-931: The Minoan language . Potentially related terms were used by a variety of Near Eastern cultures, and the Biblical term Caphtor has sometimes been identified with Crete. Two systems of relative chronology are used for the Minoans. The first, based on pottery styles, divides Minoan history into three major periods: Early Minoan (EM), Middle Minoan (MM) and Late Minoan (LM). These periods can be divided using Roman numerals (e.g. EM I, EM II, EM III), which can be further divided using capital letters (e.g. LM IIIA, LMIIIB, LM IIIC). An alternative system, proposed by Greek archaeologist Nikolaos Platon , divides Minoan history into four periods termed Prepalatial, Protopalatial, Neopalatial, and Postpalatial. Establishing an absolute chronology has proved difficult. Archaeologists have attempted to determine calendar dates by synchronizing

4280-700: The Ship Procession miniature fresco from Akrotiri , land with a settlement as well, give a wider landscape than is usual. The largest and best collection of Minoan art is in the Heraklion Archaeological Museum ("AMH") near Knossos , on the northern coast of Crete. Many different styles of potted wares and techniques of production are observable throughout the history of Crete. Early Minoan ceramics were characterized by patterns of spirals , triangles , curved lines, crosses , fish bones , and beak-spouts. However, while many of

4387-529: The marine style of pottery decoration. Late Minoan I (c. 1700-1470 BC) was a continuation of the prosperous Neopalatial culture. A notable event from this era was the eruption of the Thera volcano , which occurred around 1600 BC towards the end of the LM IA subperiod. One of the largest volcanic explosions in recorded history, it ejected about 60 to 100 cubic kilometres (14 to 24 cu mi) of material and

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4494-427: The potter's wheel during MM IB, producing wares such as Kamares ware . MM II (c. 1875–1700 BC) saw the development of the Minoan writing systems, Cretan hieroglyphic and Linear A . It ended with mass destructions generally attributed to earthquakes, though violent destruction has been considered as an alternative explanation. MM III (c. 1750–1700 BC) marks the beginning of the Neopalatial period. Most of

4601-488: The 13th century. Minoan strata replaced a mainland-derived early Bronze Age culture, the earliest Minoan settlement outside Crete. The Cyclades were in the Minoan cultural orbit and, closer to Crete, the islands of Karpathos , Saria and Kasos also contained middle-Bronze Age (MMI-II) Minoan colonies or settlements of Minoan traders. Most were abandoned in LMI, but Karpathos recovered and continued its Minoan culture until

4708-460: The Aegean and eastern Mediterranean. Minoan craftsmen were employed by foreign elites, for instance to paint frescoes at Avaris in Egypt. The Minoans developed two writing systems known as Cretan hieroglyphs and Linear A . Because neither script has been fully deciphered , the identity of the Minoan language is unknown. Based on what is known, the language is regarded as unlikely to belong to

4815-400: The Aegean to Egypt and Syria, possibly enabled by the invention of masted ships. Minoan material culture shows increased international influence, for instance in the adoption of Minoan seals based on the older Near Eastern seal . Minoan settlements grew, some doubling in size, and monumental buildings were constructed at sites that would later become palaces. EM III (c. 2200-2100 BC) saw

4922-476: The Classical era city of Knossos never encroached on the palace, even as it expanded dramatically over the surrounding area. Though the palaces sites seem to have been regarded as sacred, the ruins themselves were often quarried for spolia . Minoan archaeologists generally reserve the term "palace" for five structures. However, many Minoan structures display some hallmarks of palacehood while lacking others. In

5029-485: The Late Minoan period, flowers and animals were still characteristic but more variety existed. However, in contrast to later Ancient Greek vase painting , paintings of human figures are extremely rare, and those of land mammals not common until late periods. Shapes and ornament were often borrowed from metal tableware that has largely not survived, while painted decoration probably mostly derives from frescos. Minoan jewellery has mostly been recovered from graves, and until

5136-585: The Levantine coast and Anatolia. Minoan-style frescoes have been found at elite residences in Avaris and Tel Kabri . Minoan techniques and ceramic styles had varying degrees of influence on Helladic Greece . Along with Santorini, Minoan settlements are found at Kastri, Kythera , an island near the Greek mainland influenced by the Minoans from the mid-third millennium   BC (EMII) to its Mycenaean occupation in

5243-595: The Minoan civilization was rediscovered in the early twentieth century through archaeological excavation . The term "Minoan" was coined by Arthur Evans , who excavated at Knossos and recognized it as culturally distinct from the mainland Mycenaean culture. Soon after, Federico Halbherr and Luigi Pernier excavated the Palace of Phaistos and the nearby settlement of Hagia Triada . A major breakthrough occurred in 1952, when Michael Ventris deciphered Linear B, drawing on earlier work by Alice Kober . This decipherment unlocked

5350-522: The Minoans had forged economic links around the eastern Mediterranean, creating a local culture of elite competition via imported prestige goods. When international trade collapsed during EM III (c. 2200–2100 BC), these goods would have become scarse, increasing the status of those who retained and controlled access to them. The first palaces are generally dated to MM IB (c. 1925–1875 BC). In this era, there were only three known palaces, namely those at Knossos, Phaistos, and Malia. Among them, Phaistos provides

5457-939: The Mycenaean culture on mainland Greece , and they are often regarded as the same tradition. Many precious metal vessels found on mainland Greece exhibit Minoan characteristics, and it is thought that these were either imported from Crete or made on the mainland by Minoan metalsmiths working for Mycenaean patrons or by Mycenaean smiths who had trained under Minoan masters. The Minoans raised cattle , sheep , pigs and goats , and grew wheat , barley , vetch and chickpeas . They also cultivated grapes , figs and olives , grew poppies for seed and perhaps opium. The Minoans also domesticated bees . Vegetables, including lettuce , celery , asparagus and carrots , grew wild on Crete. Pear , quince , and olive trees were also native. Date palm trees and cats (for hunting) were imported from Egypt. The Minoans adopted pomegranates from

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5564-487: The Near East, but not lemons and oranges . They may have practiced polyculture , and their varied, healthy diet resulted in a population increase. Polyculture theoretically maintains soil fertility and protects against losses due to crop failure. Linear B tablets indicate the importance of orchards ( figs , olives and grapes) in processing crops for "secondary products". Olive oil in Cretan or Mediterranean cuisine

5671-469: The Protopalatial period (MM IB – MM IIA) they were also produced in arsenical bronze and, subsequently, tin bronze . The archaeological record suggests that mostly cup-type forms were created in precious metals, but the corpus of bronze vessels was diverse, including cauldrons, pans, hydrias , bowls, pitchers, basins, cups, ladles and lamps. The Minoan metal vessel tradition influenced that of

5778-521: The abandonment of peak sanctuaries . Pillar crypts were small dark rooms with one or more square pillars in the center. These pillars were often with the double axe sign, and sometimes accompanied channels or basins which may have been used for libations . They were usually located in lower levels near storage magazines, often directly below a cult room. They are sometimes interpreted as human-made analogues of sacred caves , where worship often centered around stalagmites and stalactites incised with

5885-477: The area of the later palace, including a segment of a long wall dating to EM III (c. 2200–2100 BC), potentially suggesting development of the site as a whole. At Malia, early remains are substantial enough that some archaeologists have argued that there was full-fledged palace by EM III (c. 2200–2100 BC) and perhaps even a predecessor in EM II (c. 2650–2200 BC). These early developments at palace sites occurred at

5992-525: The artistic motifs are similar in the Early Minoan period, there are many differences that appear in the reproduction of these techniques throughout the island which represent a variety of shifts in taste as well as in power structures. There were also many small terracotta figurines. During the Middle Minoan period, naturalistic designs (such as fish, squid, birds and lilies) were common. In

6099-548: The beginning of the Neopalatial era , which is often regarded as the mature phase of the Minoan civilization. The Neopalatial palaces were destroyed as part of a wave of violent destructions which shook the island at the end of LM IB, c. 1470 BC. After that, only Knossos continued in use during the Monopalatial era , during which a Mycenaean elite ruled the island, forming a hybrid "Mycenoan" culture. The Palace at Knossos

6206-522: The clearest evidence for this period, since later renovations obscured much of the evidence at the other two sites. They appear to have been influenced by the Near Eastern tradition of monumental temples and palaces, which used ashlar masonry to signal the building's status. However, the Minoans adapted the style to suit their own purposes. The Protopalatial palaces were a major architectural achievement that coincided with major building projects in

6313-478: The continuation of these trends. MM I (c. 2100–1875 BC) saw the emergence of Protopalatial society. During MM IA (c. 2100-1925 BC), populations increased dramatically at sites such as Knossos, Phaistos, and Malia, accompanied by major construction projects. During MM IB (c. 1925-1875 BC), the first palaces were built at these sites, in areas which had been used for communal ceremonies since the Neolithic. Middle Minoan artisans developed new colorful paints and adopted

6420-401: The court had 2:1 proportions, with the longer side running north-south. This orientation would have maximized sunlight, and oriented important rooms in the west wing's inner facade towards the rising sun. The central courts were typically aligned with the surrounding topography, in particular with nearby sacred mountains. For instance, the palace at Phaistos is aligned with Mount Ida and Knossos

6527-424: The courts, though others have argued that the paving would not have been optimal for the animals or the people, and that the restricted access points would have kept the spectacle too far out of public view. The west court was a spacious public area directly outside a palace's main entrance. Unlike the central court, the west court was located outside the palace's enclosed area, and was thus easily accessible from

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6634-443: The culmination of longer-term social and architectural trends. These initial palaces were destroyed by earthquakes around 1700 BC but were rebuilt on a grander scale, with new palaces appearing at other sites. Around 1450 BC, a wave of violent destructions destroyed all of the palaces except for Knossos, which was itself destroyed roughly a century later. The term "palace" was introduced by Arthur Evans , who had interpreted Knossos as

6741-531: The cult rooms which were added were put in areas where they would not have been in earlier times. The ruins of the palaces remained visible long after the end of the Minoan era. During the Early Iron Age they became places of open-air worship, as evidenced by deposits of votives . Later on, small shrines were constructed within the ruins, some of which persisted into the Roman era . While private houses may have been constructed at some palace sites such as Phaistos,

6848-513: The dating of the eruption of Thera , which is known to have occurred towards the end of the LM IA period. While carbon dating places this event (and thus LM IA) around 1600 BC, synchronism with Egyptian records would place it roughly a century later. Although stone-tool evidence suggests that hominins may have reached Crete as early as 130,000 years ago, evidence for the first anatomically modern human presence dates to 10,000–12,000 YBP . The oldest evidence of modern human habitation on Crete

6955-485: The distinctive Marine Style pottery, such as the LM IIIC "Octopus" stirrup jar ), indicate appreciation and occasional use of fish by the economy. However, scholars believe that these resources were not as significant as grain, olives and animal produce. "Fishing was one of the major activities...but there is as yet no evidence for the way in which they organized their fishing." An intensification of agricultural activity

7062-466: The double axe. Like lustral basins, pillar crypts also show up in villas. However, they also show up in tombs, suggesting that their ritual use may have had some relation to the dead. As with lustral basins, these rooms fell into disuse during the LM IB period (c. 1625–1470 BC). The palaces are traditionally regarded as the seats of a combined political, economic, and religious authority that presided over

7169-440: The earlier bulky masses with a more articulated layout. The interiors were also more spacious and divisions more permeable, with collondes and pier-and-door partitions replacing earlier solid walls. Many of the archetypal palatial features appear to date from this era, including Lustral Basins and fresco painting. They are much more uniform in style than their predecessors, leading scholars to suspect that they were constructed by

7276-747: The end of MM IIB (c. 1700 BC), either by earthquakes or by violence. During the Neopalatial Period, the palaces at Knossos, Phaistos, and Malia were rebuilt and new ones were constructed at Zakros and Galatas. At Knossos, rebuilding began during MM III (c. 1750–1700 BC), soon after the destruction of the earlier palace. However, the major construction projects from this period took place during LM IA (c. 1700–1625 BC), and Phaistos in particular may have been abandoned until then. The Neopalatial palaces were more imposing than their predecessors, and their interiors were more complex. The renovations introduced more internal divisions and corridors, replacing

7383-658: The end of the Bronze Age. Other supposed Minoan colonies, such as that hypothesized by Adolf Furtwängler on Aegina , were later dismissed by scholars. However, there was a Minoan colony at Ialysos on Rhodes . Minoan cultural influence indicates an orbit extending through the Cyclades to Egypt and Cyprus. Fifteenth-century   BC paintings in Thebes, Egypt depict Minoan-appearing individuals bearing gifts. Inscriptions describing them as coming from keftiu ("islands in

7490-404: The famous shaft-grave burials contain many very richly decorated swords and daggers . In contrast spears and "slashing-knives" tend to be "severely functional". Many of the decorated weapons were probably made either in Crete, or by Cretans working on the mainland. Daggers are often the most lavishly decorated, with gold hilts that may be set with jewels, and the middle of the blade decorated with

7597-735: The finest Minoan art, the ability to create an atmosphere of movement and life although following a set of highly formal conventions". It forms part of the wider grouping of Aegean art , and in later periods came for a time to have a dominant influence over Cycladic art . Wood and textiles have decomposed, so most surviving examples of Minoan art are pottery , intricately-carved Minoan seals , palace frescos which include landscapes (but are often mostly "reconstructed"), small sculptures in various materials, jewellery, and metalwork. The relationship of Minoan art to that of other contemporary cultures and later Ancient Greek art has been much discussed. It clearly dominated Mycenaean art and Cycladic art of

7704-405: The floor of the surrounding room. They are reached via a descending L-shaped staircase and are open at the top, allowing occupants to be viewed from above. Each palace had at least one lustral basin, with Phaistos having four of them. They are presumed to have been used for rituals, in particular given that at least some were decorated with religious-themed frescoes. However, their exact function

7811-499: The frescoes, and many labrys pins survive. The Minoans mastered granulation , as indicated by the Malia Pendant , a gold pendant featuring bees on a honeycomb. This was overlooked by the 19th-century looters of a royal burial site they called the "Gold Hole". Fine decorated bronze weapons have been found in Crete, especially from LM periods, but they are far less prominent than in the remains of warrior-ruled Mycenae, where

7918-490: The idea that Minoans had only goddesses and no gods is now discounted. Most human figures are in profile or in a version of the Egyptian convention with the head and legs in profile, and the torso seen frontally; but the Minoan figures exaggerate features such as slim male waists and large female breasts. What is called landscape painting is found in both frescos and on painted pots, and sometimes in other media, but most of

8025-432: The island, marking the end of Neopalatial society. These destructions are thought to have been deliberate, since they spared certain sites in a manner inconsistent with natural disasters. For instance, the town at Knossos burned while the palace itself did not. The causes of these destructions have been a perennial topic of debate. While some researchers attributed them to Mycenaean conquerors, others have argued that they were

8132-470: The largest ashlars used by the Minoans. Because Kommos is thought to have been politically dependent on Phaistos and Hagia Triada , the presence of palatial architecture is a puzzle. In the words of excavator Joseph Shaw: Could a relatively small and architecturally unpretentious town such as Kommos have promoted and maintained such an enormous structure, or have we misunderstood the palaces? Perhaps they were not so rare nor served such large regions as

8239-468: The later periods much of it consists of diadems and ornaments for women's hair, though there are also the universal types of rings, bracelets, armlets and necklaces, and many thin pieces that were sewn onto clothing. In the earlier periods gold was the main material, typically hammered very thin. but later it seemed to become scarce. The Minoans created elaborate metalwork with imported gold and copper. Bead necklaces, bracelets and hair ornaments appear in

8346-474: The local Neolithic culture around 3100   BC, with complex urban settlements beginning around 2000   BC. After c.   1450   BC, they came under the cultural and perhaps political domination of the mainland Mycenaean Greeks , forming a hybrid culture which lasted until around 1100   BC. Minoan art included elaborately decorated pottery , seals , figurines , and colorful frescoes . Typical subjects include nature and ritual. Minoan art

8453-413: The lower town. In the Protopalatial era, the courts were lined with raised triangular causeways and circular stone-lined pits which excavators dubbed kouloures after a circular Cretan pastry. Kouloures have been variously interpreted as granaries, cisterns , and planters for sacred trees. They were removed when the west courts were expanded in the Neopalatial period. The west courts were adjacent to

8560-435: The middle of the sea") may refer to gift-bringing merchants or officials from Crete. Some locations on Crete indicate that the Minoans were an "outward-looking" society. The neo-palatial site of Kato Zakros is located within 100 meters of the modern shoreline in a bay. Its large number of workshops and wealth of site materials indicate a possible entrepôt for trade. Such activities are seen in artistic representations of

8667-544: The nature of these rituals is unknown. One hypothesis suggests that the west courts were used for a harvest festival. This view is based largely on the interpretation of kouloures as grain repositories. However, this interpretation has been questioned on the basis that the kouloures lacked the sort of capping or lining that would have been necessary to keep grain dry. The palaces have extensive storage facilities which were used for agricultural commodities as well as tableware. Enormous sets of high quality tableware were stored in

8774-494: The new rulers continued the traditional Knossian use of bulls as a symbol of power. Bulls appear in one third of the surviving frescoes from this period, and in particular at the entrances and in the more ostentatious rooms. In this period, administrative records were kept in Linear B which give a snapshot of palace economics. In contrast to the widely dispersed Linear A, most Linear B inscriptions were found at Knossos, suggesting

8881-426: The palaces during the renovations that marked the beginning of the Neopalatial period (MM III, c. 1750–1700 BC). Earlier examples exist from the Protopalatial period, but only became commonplace and only took on their canonical form during the Neopalatial period. They fell out of use and were filled in during the LM IB period (c. 1625–1470 BC), simultaneous with an island-wide change in religious practice that also saw

8988-454: The palaces were rebuilt with architectural innovations, with the notable exception of Phaistos. Cretan hieroglyphs were abandoned in favor of Linear A, and Minoan cultural influence becomes significant in mainland Greece. The Late Minoan period was an eventful time that saw profound change in Minoan society. Many of the most recognizable Minoan artifacts date from this time, for instance the snake goddess figurines , La Parisienne Fresco , and

9095-503: The palaces' control. Unlike the Near Eastern buildings that influenced them, Minoan palaces were not secure fortresses, and were at least partially accessible to residents of the adjacent towns. Similarly, while Near Eastern societies had separate buildings which served as palaces and temples, Minoan architecture does not make any such obvious distinction. Some scholars have questioned whether these functions were truly grouped under one roof, or if we have somehow fundamentally misunderstood

9202-410: The palaces' monumental west facades, which towered over them. Like their Near Eastern antecedents, the west facades were punctuated by recesses which would have enhanced the spectacle of public events, creating what is sometimes referred to as a "window of appearances". The west courts are believed to have been used for public festivals, in contrast to the central courts where events would have included

9309-676: The palaces, often produced elsewhere. For instance, Kamares Ware found at Knossos was probably made in Mesara. The first palaces are generally dated to the MM IB period , c. 1925–1875 BC. Their appearance was a sudden culmination of longer social and architectural trends, and marks the beginning of the Protopalatial era . The Protopalatial palaces were destroyed around at the end of MM IIB (c. 1700 BC), seemingly by earthquakes. New palaces were constructed during MM III (c. 1750–1700 BC), marking

9416-557: The palaces, only Knossos remained in use, though it too was destroyed by LM IIIB2. The language of administration shifted to Mycenaean Greek and material culture shows increased mainland influence, reflecting the rise of a Greek-speaking elite. In Late Minoan IIIC (c. 1200-1075 BC), coinciding with the wider Late Bronze Age collapse , coastal settlements were abandoned in favor of defensible locations on higher ground. These small villages, some of which grew out of earlier mountain shrines, continued aspects of recognizably Minoan culture until

9523-494: The palaces. Similarly, they do not appear to have been the seats of kings or centralized authority. Emerging evidence suggests that palaces were primarily consumers rather than producers of many goods associated with them, such as Kamares Ware pottery, though there is limited evidence for on-site production at the palaces. A major exception is loom weights found at Knossos and Phaistos. The palaces' courts are generally regarded as having been used for public rituals, though

9630-416: The periods of Minoan history with those of their better understood contemporaries. For example, Minoan artifacts from the LM IB period have been found in 18th Dynasty contexts in Egypt, for which Egyptian chronology provides calendar dates. However, dates determined in this manner do not always match the results of carbon dating and other methods based on natural science . Much of the controversy concerns

9737-435: The residence of a "Priest-King". The term has generally been retained despite subsequent researchers largely rejecting Evans's interpretation. However, alternative terms have been proposed including “court building” and “court-centered building”, which characterize the buildings in terms of their form while remaining neutral as to their function. Numerous other terms from Minoan archaeology carry similar caveats. For instance,

9844-474: The result of internal upheavals. Similarly, while some researchers have attempted to link them to lingering environmental disruption from the Thera eruption, others have argued that the two events are too distant in time for any causal relation. Late Minoan II (c. 1470-1420 BC) is sparsely represented in the archaeological record, but appears to have been a period of decline. Late Minoan III (c. 1420-1075 BC) shows profound social and political changes. Among

9951-532: The role of the palaces in Minoan society remains a topic of scholarly debate. Writing and sealing is often taken as evidence for viewing the palaces as regional administration centers. For instance, documents from Knossos suggest that it managed large flocks of sheep in the Protopalatial era, and also appear to record transactions involving figs, olives, cereals, and other produce. Later Linear B documents record agricultural surplusses far beyond local needs for subsistence, including 960,000 liters of grain from

10058-527: The same periods, even after Crete was occupied by the Mycenaeans, but only some aspects of the tradition survived the Greek Dark Ages after the collapse of Mycenaean Greece. Minoan art has a variety of subject-matter, much of it appearing across different media, although only some styles of pottery include figurative scenes. Bull-leaping appears in painting and several types of sculpture, and

10165-407: The same proportions, they varied considerably in size. In the Neopalatial era, Knossos was twice as large as Malia and Phaistos, and three times as large as Galatas and Zakros. The palaces also changed dramatically over their lifespans, with many of their most familiar features only appearing in the Neopalatial era. Minoan palaces were organized around a rectangular central court . In each palace,

10272-517: The same team. The Neopalatial palaces were destroyed at the end of LM IB, with the exception of Knossos. At Knossos, the lower town was burned but the palace itself was not. These destructions have been attributed to warfare, either internal uprisings or external attack by Mycenaean Greeks. During the Final Palace Period (LM II-IIIA, c. 1470-1330 BC), Knossos was rebuilt while the other palaces were left in ruins. In this era, Knossos

10379-516: The same time as similar construction at peak sanctuaries and sacred caves . These developments suggest that the palaces were built as part of a broader pattern of earlier traditions being institutionalized, with particular groups within Minoan society asserting control over important spaces and activities that would have taken place there. One proposal by Stuart Manning attributes these social developments to an expansion and subsequent contraction in international trade. During EM II (c. 2650–2200 BC),

10486-635: The sea, including the Ship Procession or "Flotilla" fresco in room five of the West House at Akrotiri . In 2024, archaeologists discovered a Minoan bronze dagger with silver rivets in an ancient shipwreck at Kumluca in Antalya Province . According to the researchers, the discovery highlights the cultural and commercial exchanges in the Mediterranean during the bronze age. Minoan art is marked by imaginative images and exceptional workmanship. Sinclair Hood described an "essential quality of

10593-527: The skill of walking along a thin wire or rope. Its earliest performance has been traced to Ancient Greece. It is commonly associated with the circus. Other skills similar to tightrope walking include slack rope walking and slacklining. Tumbling is an acrobatic skill involving rolls, twists, somersaults and other rotational activities using the whole body. Its origin can be traced to ancient China , Ancient Greece and ancient Egypt. Tumbling continued in medieval times and then in circuses and theatre before becoming

10700-563: The term "Lustral Basin" is often used to refer to a particular architectural feature even by scholars who do not regard them as having been used for lustration . The defining feature of a Minoan palace is its arrangement of multistory wings around a rectangular central court. Beyond that, the palaces shared a further common architectural vocabulary of room types, ornamentation styles, and shared tendencies in layout. Their floorplans have been described as " labyrinthine ", with corridors often taking circuitous routes even between rooms which shared

10807-607: The term initially applied to tightrope walking , in the 19th century, a form of performance art including circus acts began to use the term as well. In the late 19th century, tumbling and other acrobatic and gymnastic activities became competitive sport in Europe. Acrobatics has often served as a subject for fine art. Examples of this are paintings such as Acrobats at the Cirque Fernando (Francisca and Angelina Wartenberg) by Impressionist Pierre-Auguste Renoir , which depicts two German acrobatic sisters, and Acrobats in

10914-435: The time this consists of plants shown fringing a scene, or dotted around within it. There is a particular visual convention where the surroundings of the main subject are laid out as though seen from above, though individual specimens are shown in profile. This accounts for the rocks being shown all round a scene, with flowers apparently growing down from the top. The seascapes surrounding some scenes of fish and of boats, and in

11021-408: The towns around them. However, they were smaller and less complex than their Neopalatial successors. They had a square-within-a-square layout, with fewer internal divisions than later on, and may have lacked later features such as orthostates and ashlar facades. The palaces were also more distinct from one another in this period. The Protopalatial palaces at Knossos and Phaistos were destroyed at

11128-634: Was destroyed at an unknown point roughly a century later, marking the end of the Minoan palaces. The palaces were built at sites that had been important communal spaces for a very long time. In particular, communal feasting is attested in the areas of the future Central Courts and West Courts dating back to the Neolithic. During the Early Minoan period, these areas were partly terraced and monumental buildings were constructed around them. These early buildings are poorly understood since much of their remains were obliterated by later construction. However, traces of early construction are found at Knossos throughout

11235-567: Was measured at 7 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index . While the eruption destroyed Cycladic settlements such as Akrotiri and led to the abandonment of some sites in northeast Crete, other Minoan sites such as Knossos continued to prosper. The post-eruption LM IB period (c.1625-1470) saw ambitious new building projects, booming international trade, and artistic developments such as the marine style . Late Minoan IB (c. 1625-1470 BC) ended with severe destructions throughout

11342-403: Was popularized by Arthur Evans , possibly drawing on an earlier suggestion by Karl Hoeck . It is a modern coinage and not used by the Minoans, whose name for themselves is unknown. The Egyptians referred to the Minoans as the kftjw (vocalized as " Keftiu " in modern Egyptological pronunciation ). It is not known whether this was an exonym or if it was an endonym originating in

11449-712: Was ruled by a Mycenaean Greek elite, who adopted a mixture of local Minoan cultural traditions and ones from the mainland. Many of the most famous rooms in the palace took their final form in this era, including the Throne Room and much of the residential quarters in the East Wing. The palace was extensively redecorated with new frescoes that adopted aspects of mainland Mycenaean iconography. These new frescoes abandoned earlier Minoan subjects such as fantastical nature scenes and ecstatic rituals, replacing them with figure-eight shields and processions of tribute-bearers. However,

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