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107-625: This mountainous area forms the barrier between Cameroon's forested south and savanna north. At almost 64,000 km in land area, the Adamawa is the third largest of Cameroon's ten regions . The land is rugged and sparsely populated, however, as most is devoted to the rearing of cattle . The Muslim Fulbe (Fulani) form the major ethnic group, though Tikar , Gbaya , and other peoples are present in lesser numbers. The Adamawa's oldest populations were various Paleo-Sudanese peoples. These were mostly displaced or absorbed by invading Sudanese groups in

214-465: A jihad . Usman named his lieutenant Modima Adam Al-Hasan , or Modibo Adama , lamido of Fumbina, and Adama quickly raised an army in the territory. Adama's forces proved all but unstoppable. He conquered major Vute centres at Mbamnyang and Tibaré in 1835, which he renamed Banyo and Tibati . At Adama's death in 1847, Fulbe horsemen controlled territory from the Niger River to the west and

321-538: A tropical regime , with a period of high water from May to September during the rainy season, and a period of low water – or even complete dryness – from October to April. Some of these are subject to seasonal flooding as well, such as the Djérem in the area of the Mbakaou Reservoir. The province's rivers fall into three different basins: those that ultimately flow into the Niger River , to Lake Chad , and to

428-524: A Cameroonian dialect of the Senegambian language Fulfulde . Due to their historical hegemony of the territory, it also serves as a lingua franca. Other major languages include Bitare , Dii , Gbaya , Mambila , and Tikar . Most educated inhabitants also speak French. Islam is followed by many in Adamawa, especially among the Fulbe majority. Even among them, however, there is a noted difference between

535-574: A Fulbe monopoly. The region's low population, high humidity, and vast fields of grass make it ideal for grazing. Herdsmen rotate pastures, and they often construct watering holes or wells for themselves and their animals. The close relationship between the Bororo and their herds lends a great cultural importance to a Fulbe's number of cattle, and the more heads of cattle a man has, the wealthier he is. This often leads herders to never kill their animals, however, and to keep sick animals alive for fear of losing

642-442: A Muslim from the country's north. Ahidjo became Cameroon's first president after the country's independence on 1 January 1960. He devoted substantial resources to developing his northern homeland, such as the extension of a road north from Yaoundé to better link Cameroon's north and south. The railroad followed soon thereafter, construction beginning in 1961 and reaching Ngaoundéré ten years later. The northern Muslims largely viewed

749-584: A combination that dominates until the Faro River . East of this, granites once again prevail, though sedimentary rock forms the valley of the Mbéré River , and a zone of metamorphic rock surrounds this. The Lom River also rises in a region of metamorphic rock. Volcanic rock occurs in the northwest just east of the Gotel Mountains and northeast of Ngaoundéré , the provincial capital, along

856-662: A hardship for the Muslims, I would never idle behind from a raiding party going out to fight in the path of Allah.... I [would] love to raid in the path of Allah and be killed, to raid again and be killed, and to raid again and be killed”. Muhammad also said that "Lining up for battle in the path of Allah [jihad] is worthier than 60 years of worship". Muhammad claimed that any Muslim who refused to fight in jihad “will be tortured like no other sinful human” in hell with confirmation from Qur'an 8:15-16. In another hadith Muhammad said, “the sword wipes away all sins” and “being killed in

963-649: A high in April. Torrential rains in May and June bring temperatures down once again. A third climate type characterises the Adamawa's southwest corner (most of the Mayo-Banyo division). This region experiences an equatorial climate of the Cameroon type . Rainfall is within 1,500 to 2,000 mm with a long dry period followed by a long wet period. The Adamawa's economy is based almost entirely on one single thing: cattle ,

1070-452: A large survey from 2002 reveals considerable nuance in the conceptions of jihad held by Muslims around the world, ranging from righteous living and promoting peace to fighting against the opponents of Islam . The word jihad appears frequently in the Qur'an referring to both religious and spiritual struggle and to war and physical struggle, often in the idiomatic expression "striving in

1177-579: A nearby hill. Many Mbum converted to Islam and remained, though many others migrated north. The town became the seat of the lamidat of Ardo Ndjobdi . Beginning around 1835, Fulbe immigrants streamed into the newly conquered territories in large numbers. By 1850, the Fulbe were firmly entrenched in northern Cameroon. Native populations were subjugated and placed under the rule of the local lamidos. Native populations were forced to convert to Islam, face enslavement, or flee. Fulbe merchants accepted salt and horses from North Africa in exchange for slaves for sale in

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1284-517: A pacifist school, which maintained that jihad was only a defensive war. He stated that the jurists who held this position, among whom he refers to Hanafi jurists al-Awza‛i (d. 774) and Malik ibn Anas (d. 795), and other early jurists, "stressed that tolerance should be shown unbelievers, especially scripturaries and advised the Imam to prosecute war only when the inhabitants of the dar al-harb came into conflict with Islam." The duty of Jihad

1391-490: A portion of one's net worth. Nevertheless, many Fulbe herders transport their cattle to the big markets of Yaoundé and Douala for sale (some make it as far as Gabon and Congo ). The major transhumance paths are in the western third of the province and at the border with Chad. Most of these animals are of the humpbacked zebu breed. Near Ngaoundéré and Banyo, these are called Fulani zebu , large and meaty animals with dark-brown hides and white spots. The nomadic Fulbe, on

1498-549: A rule would make fighting impossible, as every city had civilians. Mutilating the enemy dead is prohibited. Two rulings on destruction of enemy property conflict. In one military battle, Prophet Muhammad ordered the destruction of an enemy's palm trees as a means of ending a siege without bloodshed. By contrast, Abu Bakr prohibited destruction of trees, buildings and livestock. Most jurists did not allow unnecessary destruction of enemy property, but allowed it in cases of military necessity, such as destroying buildings in which

1605-456: A section called Book of Jihad , with rules governing the conduct of war covered at great length. Such rules include treatment of nonbelligerents, women, children (also cultivated or residential areas), and division of spoils. Such rules offered protection for civilians. Spoils include Ghanimah (spoils obtained by actual fighting), and fai (obtained without fighting i.e. when the enemy surrenders or flees). The first documentation of

1712-420: A superior jihad . Tradition distinguishes the "greater jihad " (inner struggle against sinful behavior) from the "lesser jihad " (military sense). Early Islamic thought considered non-violent interpretations of jihad , especially for those Muslims who could not partake in warfare in distant lands. Most classical writings use the term " jihad " in the military sense. The tradition differentiating between

1819-482: Is a legitimate reaction to military aggression by unbelievers and not merely due to religious differences. Ibn Taymiyya wrote: "As for the transgressor who does not fight, there are no texts in which Allah commands him to be fought. Rather, the unbelievers are only fought on the condition that they wage war, as is practiced by the majority of scholars and is evident in the Book and Sunnah." As important as jihad was, it

1926-589: Is also a microcosm of the province's ethnic diversity, as representatives of most of the Adamawa's peoples can be found there. The Mayo-Banyo division in the southwest has a slightly higher population density than the rest of the province, largely due to the highly concentrated Mambila and Konja of the Mambila Mountains and the Vute and Pere of the Gotel Mountains. The Pere are also known as

2033-402: Is an Arabic word that means "exerting", "striving", or "struggling", particularly with a praiseworthy aim. In an Islamic context, it encompasses almost any effort to make personal and social life conform with God 's guidance, such as an internal struggle against evil in oneself, efforts to build a good Muslim community ( ummah ), and struggle to defend Islam . In non-Muslim societies,

2140-588: Is at the province's northwest, north of Mayo-Baleo town. They have another centre at the village of Paro south of Tignère , and their third grouping on the Meng River. The Kali at the province's northeast, along the North Province border centred at Bélél . The Mbum (Mboum) are the last group, occupying the town of Ngaoundal and its environs. East of Ngaoundéré are the Dii , who have larger territories in

2247-446: Is because, unlike property, animals feel pain. In pre-Islamic Arabia, Bedouins raided enemy tribes and settlements to collect spoils. According to some scholars (such as James Turner Johnson), while Islamic leaders "instilled into the hearts of the warriors the belief" in jihad "holy war" and ghaza (raids), the "fundamental structure" of this Bedouin warfare "remained, ... raiding to collect booty". According to Jonathan Berkey ,

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2354-471: Is generally emphasized in pious and mystical circles. The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic defines the term as "fight, battle; jihad , holy war (against the infidels , as a religious duty)". However, given the range of meanings, it is incorrect to equate it simply with "holy war". The notion of jihad has its origins in the Islamic idea that the whole humankind will embrace Islam. In

2461-508: Is mentioned in four places in the Qur'an as a noun, while its derived verb is used in twenty-four places. Mujahid , the active participle meaning " jihadist ", is mentioned in two verses. In some of these mentions (see At-Tawbah 9/41, 44, 81, 86), it is understood that the word jihad directly refers to war, and in others, jihad is used in the sense of "the effort to live in accordance with Allah's will". Qur'anic exhortations to jihad have been interpreted by Islamic scholars both in

2568-537: Is no compulsion in religion". The primary aim of jihad as warfare is not the conversion of non-Muslims to Islam by force, but rather the expansion and defense of the Islamic state . There could be truces before this was achieved, but no permanent peace. One who died "on the path of God" was a martyr ( shahid ), whose sins were remitted and who secured "immediate entry to paradise". According with Bernard Lewis , "from an early date Muslim law laid down" jihad in

2675-629: Is not a justification for war. These jurists therefore maintain that only combatants are to be fought; noncombatants such as women, children, clergy, the aged, the insane, farmers, serfs, the blind, and so on are not to be killed in war. Thus, the Hanafī Ibn Najīm stated: "the reason for jihād in our [the Hanafīs] view is kawnuhum harbā ‛alaynā [literally, their being at war against us]." The Hanafī jurists al-Shaybānī state that "although unbelief in God

2782-481: Is not considered one of the " pillars of Islam ". According to one scholar ( Majid Khadduri , this is because the five pillars are individual obligations, but jihad is a "collective obligation" of the Muslim community meant to be carried out by the Islamic state. This was the belief of "all jurists, with almost no exception", but did not apply to defense of the Muslim community from a sudden attack, in which case jihad

2889-646: Is one of the greatest sins, it is between the individual and his God the Almighty and the punishment for this sin is to be postponed to the dār al-jazā’ , (the abode of reckoning, the Hereafter)." Al-Sarakhsī says something similar. Offensive jihad involved forays into enemy territory either for conquest, thus enlarging the Muslim political order, or to dissuade the enemy from attacking Muslim lands. Shia and Sunni theories of jihad are similar, except that Shias consider offensive jihad to be valid only under

2996-404: Is only waged for the sake of God not for material wealth. On the contrary, jihad required man to put both his life and wealth at risk. Jihad is ranked as one of the highest good deeds; according to one hadith it is the third-best deed after prayer and being good to one's parents. One hadith exempts military jihad on men whose parents are alive, as serving one's parents is considered

3103-586: Is sometimes used without religious connotation, with a meaning similar to the English word " crusade " (as in "a crusade against drugs"). Jihad is used commonly in Arabic countries, in the neutral sense of "a struggle for a noble cause", as a unisex name given to children. Nonetheless, jihad is usually used in the religious sense and its beginnings trace to the Qur'an and the words and actions of Muhammad . Jihad

3210-601: Is that directly northwest of the Mbakaou Reservoir and directly west of the Faro River. The extreme northwest of the province has ferruginous soil instead, and many of the province's mountains, including the Gotes and Mambilas, contain mixtures of several soil types. The Adamawa is sometimes dubbed the "water tower" of Cameroon, since a large number of the country's rivers rise in the area. All of these fall into

3317-647: Is the Parc National du Mbam et Djérem , which protects 4165 km in both the Adamawa and East Provinces. The park is notable for containing both large tracts of savanna and forest. In addition, a small portion of the Parc National de Boumba Ndjida extends into the territory from the North Province. The Adamawa is sparsely populated. Large swathes of land are devoted almost entirely to the use of Fulbe cattle herders, this pasture punctuated only by occasional settlements. The Cameroonian government has made efforts to persuade Fulbe herdsmen to adopt sedentary ways, but

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3424-566: Is the struggle against one's passions." This passage was cited in The History of Baghdad by Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi , an 11th-century Islamic scholar. This reference gave rise to the practice of distinguishing "greater" and "lesser" jihad . Islamic scholars such as Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani consider the hadith to have a weak chain of transmission . The concept has had "enormous influence" in Islamic mysticism ( Sufism ). Ibn Hazm lists four kinds of jihad fi sabilillah (struggle in

3531-601: Is the word of Justice in front of the oppressive sultan. and The Messenger of Allah was asked about the best jihad . He said: "The best jihad is the one in which your horse is slain and your blood is spilled." Ibn Nuhaas cited a hadith from Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal , where Muhammad stated that the highest kind jihad is "The person who is killed whilst spilling the last of his blood" (Ahmed 4/144). Muhammad also said, “I cannot find anything” as meritorious as jihad ; he further likened jihad to “praying ceaselessly and fasting continuously”. Muhammad said that “if it were not

3638-687: The Atlantic Ocean . The Mayo Deo River rises in the Gotel Mountains and then flows into the North Province. The Faro River begins a short distance east of the Mayo Deo but follows a wide, arcing course east and north between the Vina division and the Faro and Deo division before entering the North Province (the two rivers eventually join). Two major rivers lie in the Chad basin . The Mbéré rises north of

3745-994: The Islamisation of the area's non-Muslim inhabitants, as this would place them under the rule of the lamidos, who were already submissive to the German governor. Germany's 1916 defeat in Africa in World War I eventually gave control of the territory to the French , the region's third occupying force in less than a century. The new governors placed the region in the Mora-Garoua administrative area with its capital at Garoua. French colonial policies varied little from their German predecessors. Lamidos were left in nominal power, though they were expected to carry out French policies. France also did away with recalcitrant rulers, and by 1936,

3852-904: The Logone to the east and from the Sahara to the north and the Sanaga River to the south to form the Sokoto Caliphate . Adama's emirate (known as the Adamawa Emirate ) was divided into districts under governors; the Adamawa Plateau fell into the Ngaoundéré subdivision. Fighting against native peoples continued for many years. Around 1830, the Fulbe conquered the Mbum village of Delbé , which they renamed Ngaoundéré, after

3959-814: The Semi-Bantu tribes, such as the Bamileke , Bamun , Kom , Nso , Tikar, Widikum , and Wimbam . The Bantu came as well, examples being the Beti-Pahuin and Maka and Njem . Other groups who came were the Gbaya, from the present CAR, and the Vute, from the Lake Chad region. The Vute were region's first iron workers , and they founded the towns of Mbamnyang (present Banyo) and Tibaré (present Tibati). The Semi-Bantu peoples gradually moved south before settling near

4066-463: The hadith , which suffers from "a general lack of knowledge", according to Akbar Ahmed . According to classical Islamic scholars like Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya , jihad is against four types of enemies: the lower self ( nafs ), Satan , the unbelievers, and the hypocrites. The first two types of jihad are purely peaceful spiritual struggles. According to Ibn Qayyim, "Jihad against the lower self precedes jihad against external enemies." Confirming

4173-430: The "greater and lesser jihad " is not included in any of the authoritative compilations of Hadith. In consequence, some Islamists dismiss it as not authentic. The most commonly cited hadith for "greater jihad " is: A number of fighters came to Muhammad and he said "You have come from the 'lesser jihad ' to the 'greater jihad ' ." The fighters asked "what is the greater jihad ?" Muhammad replied, "It

4280-489: The 8th or 9th century. These included the Mbum (Mboum), Ndoro (Dourou), Kutin, (Koutine), Laka-Mbere , Chamba , Doayo , Fali , Mundang (Moundang), and Tupuri (Toupouri). It's southwestern flank lies within the northern fringes of the region of the earliest (Proto-) Bantu homeland from where the Bantu expansion began about 2000 BC (Blench, 1993). This stretch is believed to contain some of "the Bantu who stated home" after

4387-646: The Adamawa. The province begins to the south as part of the South Cameroon Plateau . The land rises gently but unevenly until about 6 degrees latitude . Here begins the Adamawa Plateau , a band of terrain that ranges from 1,000 to 2,000 m in altitude (averaging about 1,100 m) and stretches from Nigeria to the CAR. Altitude dips to as low of 500 m in the Djérem and Mbéré valleys and at

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4494-506: The Bantu split and expansion to central, eastern and southern Africa Zeitlyn - Connell, 2003:136). Since the split, the southwestern section witnessed series of invasions and dispersals analogous to Armageddon. Many of the populations of the Western Grassfields can be traced to these dispersals. The Kanem-Bornu Empire of Lake Chad had relations with these tribes. They called the area Fumbina or Mabina (a name which denoted

4601-456: The Crusades. Ali ibn Tahir al-Sulami argued that all Muslims were responsible for waging wars of self-defense. Al-Sulami encouraged Muslim rulers from distant lands to assist Muslims who were under attack. Classical Shia doctrine maintained defensive jihad was always permissible, but offensive jihad required the presence of the Imam. An exception to this, during medieval times, was when

4708-462: The East Province. The Djérem eventually becomes the Sanaga River , and these other rivers ultimately empty into it. A long history of volcanism has also created a number of crater lakes in the province, the results of collapsed volcanoes filling with water. Among the most well known are Lakes Tison (Tyson, Tisson) and Mbalang near Ngaoundéré. Powerful geothermal forces have shaped

4815-475: The Islamic prophet Muhammad) about jihad , typically under the headings of kitab al-jihad (book of jihad ) or faza'il al-jihad (virtues of jihad ) in hadith collections or as the subject of independent works. Of the 199 hadith references to jihad in the Bukhari collection of hadith , all assume that jihad means warfare. Among reported sayings of Muhammad involving jihad are: The best Jihad

4922-469: The Kutin or Koutine, though this is in fact a highly derogatory term meaning "dogs" that was given to them by the Fulbe. The northern border also has a slightly higher population density than the Fulbe interior. Language provides the most convenient means of categorising the Adamawa's ethnic groups. The greatest number of peoples speak various Southern Bantoid languages . These Bantoid peoples primarily occupy

5029-412: The Muslim empires to the north. A smaller number of slaves went south for the trans-Atlantic market. Those groups who resisted had no choice but to flee to the unforgiving mountains or else to the jungle south. Those groups who were immediate neighbours to the warring Fulbe, such as the Vute and Gbaya, dislodged others who lay in their path, such as Cameroon's Bantu peoples. The Fulbe jihads thus served as

5136-512: The Muslim north, however, when he introduced his Abong-Mbang Resolutions . One of these called for the "democratisation" of northern Cameroon, which the Muslim rulers feared was code for bringing an end to their influence. Muslim leaders thus threatened to secede from Cameroon and join French Chad unless the resolutions were recalled. The events eventually led to Mbida's expulsion from the prime ministry and his replacement by Ahmadou Ahidjo ,

5243-757: The North Province into three parts in 1983, thus creating the Far North Region (Cameroon) , North, and Adamawa Provinces as they exist today. He also absorbed the University of Ngaoundéré into the national system. In the first months of 2014, thousands of refugees fleeing the violence in the Central African Republic arrived in Cameroon via the border towns of the Adamawa Region, East Region , and North Region . In 2008,

5350-464: The North Province. As speakers of an Ubangi language , the Gbaya make up another important grouping. Their territory spans the whole of the Mbéré division as well as a small area at the southwest of the Vina division. They continue south into the East Province. The Fulbe make up an estimated 60% of the Adamawa's population. They are further subdivided into two subgroups: the sedentary, or town, Fulbe and

5457-629: The President of the Republic of Cameroon, President Paul Biya signed decrees abolishing "Provinces" and replacing them with "Regions". Hence, all of the country's ten provinces are now known as Regions. The Adamawa is one of Cameroon's more geologically diverse areas. The Gotel and Mambila Mountains at the border with Nigeria are largely composed of granite , which gives way to crystalline and metamorphic rock such as mica , schists , and gneiss . These are often covered in volcanic basalt ,

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5564-435: The Qur'an and in later Muslim usage, jihad is commonly followed by the expression fi sabil illah , "in the path of God." Muhammad Abdel-Haleem stated that it indicates "the way of truth and justice, including all the teachings it gives on the justifications and the conditions for the conduct of war and peace." In Modern Standard Arabic , the term jihad is used for a struggle for causes, both religious and secular . It

5671-585: The Qur'an's statements in support of jihad may have originally been directed against Muhammad's local enemies, the pagans of Mecca or the Jews of Medina, but these same statements could be redirected once new enemies appeared. According to scholar Majid Khadduri, it was the shift in focus to the conquest and spoils collecting of non-Bedouin unbelievers and away from traditional inter-Bedouin tribal raids, that may have made it possible for Islam to expand and to avoid self-destruction. According to Al-Baqara 256 "there

5778-599: The South Cameroon and Adamawa Plateaus. The former experiences an equatorial climate of the Guinea type with four seasons: a long, dry period from December to May, a short, wet period from May to June, a short, dry season from July to October, and finally a long, wet season from October to November. The climate of the Adamawa Plateau is classified as tropical of the Sudan type . It has only two seasons; November begins

5885-571: The West and the Fulbe empire came to an end. Instead, Germany annexed part of Adama's empire in 1884, and the other part became part of British Nigeria. As far as Europe was concerned, the Adama emirate no longer existed. The Fulbe fiercely opposed German hegemony. The German governor Jesko von Puttkamer sent soldiers under Captain Von Kamptz to suppress the uprisings, and on 7 May 1899, Banyo became

5992-478: The age of puberty , elderly men, people with disabilities and those who are sick. Diplomats, merchants and peasants are similarly immune from being attacked. Monks are presumed to be non-combatants and thus have immunity; places of worship should not be attacked. Even if the enemy disregarded the immunity of noncombatants, Muslims could not respond in kind. However, these categories lose their immunity should they participate in fighting, planning, or supplying

6099-425: The arrival of Cameroon's second president, Paul Biya , suspiciously. This was largely due to an Ahidjo partisan named Moussa Yaya , whom Biya and the press accused of trying to turn the lamidos against the new leader. Biya enjoys some support in the province today, but his popularity is nowhere near as strong as in Cameroon's south. Part of this is because Biya's main activities in the north have been minimal. He split

6206-665: The border north of Ngaoundéré. The plateau continues to about 8 degrees north before descending to the Benué Depression in abrupt cliffs and active volcanoes (though this transitional zone is mostly in the North Province). Faults also cut across the area, the major one being the Cameroon Fault , dating from the Cretaceous Period . The Mbang Mountains follow this fault in a rough cut toward

6313-464: The border with the North Province. Soils are mostly made up of brown or brownish-red laterites , the result of the annual shift between dry and wet conditions and soil wash on the mountains. Iron and aluminium content is high, which causes hardpans , duracrust , or cuirasses to form near the surface due to oxidation . The soil of the Lom valley is a lightly evolved composition of raw materials, as

6420-544: The cause of God): A related hadith tradition that has "found its way into popular Muslim literature", and which has been said to "embody the Muslim mindset" of the Islamic Golden Age (the period from the mid-8th century to mid-13th century following the relocation of the Abbasid capital from Damascus to Baghdad ), is: "The ink of the scholar is more holy than the blood of the martyr." The belief in

6527-405: The central importance of the spiritual aspect of jihad , Ibn Taymiyyah wrote: "Jihad against the lower self and whims is the foundation of jihad against the unbelievers and hypocrites, for a Muslim cannot wage jihad against them unless he has waged jihad against himself and his desires first, before he goes out against them." Engaging in the greater jihad does not preclude engaging in

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6634-414: The combative and non-combative sense. Ahmed al-Dawoody wrote that there seventeen references to or derivatives of jihad occur altogether forty-one times in eleven Meccan texts and thirty Medinan ones, with 28 mentions related to religious belief or spiritual struggle and 13 mentions related to warfare or physical struggle. There are also many hadiths (records of the teachings, deeds and sayings of

6741-630: The context of the Caucasus: " Gazavat was the jihad of its day. Gazavat meant putting yourself on the right path (what Muslims refer to as the lesser jihad ) as well as expelling the invader (what is referred to as greater jihad )." Classical scholars considered various justifications for jihad , including waging it defensively vs offensively. Scholarly opinions carried significant weight with Muslim leaders. Scholars paid more attention to conduct of war ( jus in bello ) than justification of war ( jus ad bellum ). The decision of when to wage war

6848-548: The dry period, and April the wet. Rainfall here averages 900 to 1,500 mm per year and decreases further north. May and June are the wettest, with occasional tornadoes ; August is another rainfall peak. In addition, temperatures dip from November to January, as conditions similar to those that cause winter in temperate climes take at least a tentative hold. Temperatures rise due to the Harmattan beginning in January, reaching

6955-401: The east. Other mountains dot the province, as well. The Mambilas stretch into the extreme southwest from Nigeria and the Northwest and West Provinces. The Gotels are north of these along the border with Nigeria. All of these mountains form part of the Cameroon Ridge . Tchabal Mbabo , in the Gotels, is the highest peak at 2,460 m. The Adamawa's vegetation has been shaped greatly by man. It

7062-417: The enemy is taking shelter. Some jurists allowed destruction if it would weaken the enemy or win the war. Many jurists cautioned against "unnecessary devastation", not just out of humanitarian concerns, but practical ones: it is more useful to capture an enemy's property than to destroy it. Islamic scholars prohibited killing animals, unless due to military necessity (such as killing horses in battle). This

7169-418: The enemy. Some jurists argued that immunity was more related to noncombatant status than being in a certain demographic class. For example, Muhaqqiq al-Hilli opined that only old men are only immune from being killed if they neither fight, nor take a role in military decision making. Up until the Crusades , Muslim jurists disallowed the use of mangonels because the weapon killed indiscriminately with

7276-411: The first Fatimid caliph Abdallah al-Mahdi Billah claimed to be the representative of the Imam and claimed the right to launch offensive jihad . After the Mongol invasions , Shia scholar Muhaqqiq al-Hilli claimed that defensive war was not just permissible but praiseworthy, even obligatory. If a Muslim could not take part in the defense then he should, at least, send material support. This remained

7383-537: The first major town to surrender. Tibati fell a month later, and Ngaoundéré followed on 20 September 1901. The Adamawa Plateau was now largely pacified, and the Germans pushed north toward the important trade town of Garoua. Germany eventually prevailed against the Fulbe, and the present Adamawa fell into the Ngaoundéré administrative area, or "residency". From 1902 to 1903, Germany allowed most lamidos to stay in power, albeit under German supervision; rulers who refused to cooperate were replaced. The colonials also encouraged

7490-411: The headwaters of the Mbam River sometime between the 17th and 19th centuries. The Bantu settled east of them, south of the Adamawa Plateau. One or all of these populations founded Banyo, Tibati, and Ngaoundéré. Meanwhile, the Bantu and Semi-Bantu invasions drove the longer-established Sudanese peoples north. The Mbum, Ndoro, Kutin, and Laka-Mbere moved to the present-day province's northern reaches, while

7597-418: The landscape are evergreen and deciduous until about 1800 m altitude, when ferns and bamboos become prevalent. Grasses are the dominant form of plant life throughout except in the few forested areas and in some regions of scrubby bush. In addition, the southwestern half of the Mayo-Banyo division is a more heavily forested woodland savanna . The Adamawa has two national reserves. The first of these

7704-463: The law of jihad was written by 'Abd al-Rahman al-Awza'i and Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Shaybani . (It grew out of debates that surfaced following Muhammad's death. ) Although some Islamic scholars have differed on the implementation of Jihad , the consensus amongst them is that jihad always includes armed struggle against persecution and oppression. Both Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim asserted that Muhammad never initiated hostilities and that all

7811-734: The leadership of the Mahdi , who is currently believed to be in occultation but will return. However, defensive jihad is permissible in Shia Islam before the Mahdi's return. In fact, Shia scholars emphasized it was a religious duty for Shia to defend all Muslims (including Sunni Muslims) from outside invaders. They might be our enemies but they are human beings. They consist of civil population comprising of women and children; how can one kill, loot and plunder them? Rules prohibit attacking or molesting non-combatants, including women, children under

7918-590: The lesser jihad . Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani recommended his followers to pursue both the greater and the lesser jihad s. At least one important contemporary Twelver Shia figure, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini , the leader of the Iranian Revolution and the founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran , wrote a treatise on the "Greater Jihad " (i.e., internal/personal struggle against sin). Robert W. Schaefer discussed jihad and gazavat in

8025-466: The military sense as "one of the principal obligations" of both "the head of the Muslim state", who declared jihad , and the Muslim community. According to legal historian Sadakat Kadri, Islamic jurists first developed classical doctrine of jihad "towards the end of the eighth century", using the doctrine of naskh (that God gradually improved His revelations over the course of Muhammed's mission). They subordinated Qur'anic verses emphasizing harmony to

8132-471: The moral uplift of society or towards the spread of Islam" can be known as " jihad of the tongue" or " jihad of the pen", as opposed to " jihad of the sword". It is used as a term in fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) mostly in the latter sense, while in Sufism mostly in the sense of fighting the nafs al-ammara , which is the psychological state of succumbing to one's own desires. Spiritual and moral jihad

8239-575: The more "confrontational" verses of Muhammad's later years and linked verses on exertion ( jihad ) to those of fighting ( qital ). Muslims jurists of the eighth century divided the world into three divisions, dar al-Islam / dar al-‛adl / dar al-salam (house of Islam/house of justice/house of peace), dar al-harb / dar al-jawr (house of war/house of injustice, oppression), and dar al-sulh / dar al-‛ahd/dār al-muwada‛ah (house of peace/house of covenant/house of reconciliation). The eighth century jurist Sufyan al-Thawri (d. 778) headed what Khadduri called

8346-468: The nomadic traditions show little signs of change. Because the savanna has been pushing south, however, there is now a substantial amount of immigration to the Centre and East Provinces. Ngaoundéré is one of Cameroon's fastest growing cities due to its location at the terminus of Cameroon's north–south railroad . The modern city is thus a sprawling mass of winding streets surrounding the traditional town. It

8453-466: The other Sudanese migrated even farther. This period marked the highest population for the Adamawa territory until modern times. However, one event had drastic consequences for the region: the arrival of the Fulbe. Early Fulbe settlers entered the Adamawa from present-day Nigeria or northern Cameroon as early as the 13th century. These settlers and nomads were never numerous, however, and they often held subservient status to other tribes. Over time, however,

8560-461: The other hand, herd Bororo zebu . These are leaner, lighter-coloured beasts that are better able to travel long distances. Regions of Cameroon The Republic of Cameroon is divided into ten regions. Between 1961 and 1972, Cameroon was a federal republic made up of two federated states, East Cameroon and West Cameroon . A unitary system came into being in 1972. The country was then divided into provinces. In 1983, Centre-South Province

8667-561: The pastoral Fulbe, or Bororo . The sedentary Fulbe are more numerous and inhabit most of the province's major towns, including Banyo , Tibati , Tignère , and Ngaoundéré, the capital. Over years of intermixing with native populations, they have come to physically resemble their Sudanese neighbours. The pastoral Fulbe create only temporary settlements, preferring instead to range across the province and beyond with large herds of cattle. These Fulbe are lighter skinned than their town brethren, tall and thin, with aquiline features. The Fulbe speak

8774-468: The path of Allah washes away impurity”. According to another hadith , supporting one's parents is an example of jihad . It has been reported that Muhammad considered performing hajj well to be the best jihad for Muslim women. The hadith emphasize jihad as one of the means to Paradise . All sins (except debt) would be forgiven for the one who dies in it. Participation in jihad had to be voluntary and intention must be pure, for jihad

8881-449: The path of God (al-jihad fi sabil Allah ) ", conveying a sense of self-exertion. In the hadiths , jihad refers predominantly to warfare. Greater jihad refers to spiritual and moral struggle, and has traditionally been emphasized in Sufi and Ahmadiyya circles. The sense of jihad as armed resistance was first used in the context of persecution faced by Muslims when Muhammad

8988-507: The potential of harming noncombatants. During the Crusades this ruling was reversed out of military need. Jurists grappled with the question of attacking an enemy that used women, children or Muslims as human shields . Most jurists held that it was permissible to attack the enemy in cases of military necessity , but steps should be taken to direct the attack towards combatants to avoid the human shield. Abu Hanifa argued that if Muslims stopped combat for fear of killing noncombatants, then such

9095-513: The present province as well as territories in present-day Nigeria and the Central African Republic ). The Kanem-Bornu also introduced Islam to the region between 1349 and 1385 by way of the Islamic centre at Kano in present-day Nigeria . However, no more than a few rulers, nobles or merchants ever converted. Many more tribes entered the territory from the region of Chad between the 14th and 17th centuries. These included

9202-465: The prohibition of killing them merely because of their unbelief). According to Ibn Taymiyya, human blood is inviolable by default, except "by right of justice". Although Ibn Taymiyya authorised offensive Jihad ( Jihad al-Talab ) against enemies who threaten Muslims or obstruct their citizens from freely accepting Islam, unbelief ( Kufr ) by itself is not a justification for violence, whether against individuals or stated. According to Ibn Taymīyah, jihad

9309-573: The province's western third, in the Faro and Deo and the Mayo-Banyo divisions. The Ndoro are the northernmost, living on the Nigerian border on the upper Mayo Deo. To their south lie the Nyem-Nyem , called Suga by the Mbum, in the northern third of Mayo-Banyo division and along the west bank of the Meng River. The Vute live south of them on the Nigerian border and in a second population centre on

9416-437: The region had 39 lamidos and one sultan . France's main contribution to the region was its improvements to infrastructure. Road construction, in particular, accelerated during French rule, and the colonials had a road built from Foumban to Garoua via Banyo, Tibati, and Ngaoundéré. In 1956, France made all of its West African colonies self-governing. André-Marie Mbida became the first premier of Cameroon. Mbida quickly alienated

9523-457: The sedentary Fulbe, who are more religious, and the nomadic Bororo, who are often only nominally Muslim. Christianity has made many inroads, though Christians are in a distinct minority. Many of the tribes retain animist , or " pagan ", beliefs, particularly in the mountains near the Nigerian border. The province's high elevation lends it a relatively cool climate average between 22 and 25 degrees Celsius. However, specific conditions vary between

9630-500: The single most important event in the peopling of southern Cameroon. The jihad only served to depopulate Cameroon's north, however. The Fulbe invaders did not set up new settlements. Rather, they used their conquered lands as pasture for their cattle. Many of these groups were still migrating when they came into contact with Cameroon's new colonisers: The Germans . British explorers were the first Europeans to enter Adamawa territory when they came in 1822. The German Dr. Gustav Nachtigal

9737-490: The southwest before flowing into the Centre Province. The Djérem forms in eastern and western branches, which converge at the Mbakaou Reservoir. The river then flows south into the East Province. Due to the reservoir (which holds two million cubic metres of water), the Djérem forms an important source of hydroelectric power for Cameroon. Finally, the Lom rises about 60 km east of Meiganga before flowing south into

9844-618: The southwestern bank of the Mbarkaou Reservoir. The Mambila inhabit the southwestern border, and the Konja lie inland from them along the Banyo-Bankim road. The Tikar are at the province's southwestern corner, with territories extending into the neighbouring provinces. Those peoples who speak Adamawa languages constitute the next major grouping. The Pere are farthest west of these, living in three main concentrations. The first

9951-465: The steady stream of Fulbe immigrants allowed Fulbe communities to spring up in many areas. These early Fulbe converted to Islam sometime in the 17th century, beginning with the settled, or town, Fulbe. In 1804, Fulbe in the territory and beyond were growing disenchanted with submission to pagan tribes. They were also hungry for larger territories that they could use for cattle grazing. The Fulbe leader Usman dan Fodio responded to this sentiment and called

10058-465: The term is most often associated with warfare . Jihad is classified into inner ("greater") jihad , which involves a struggle against one's own passions and impulses, and outer ("lesser") jihad , which is further subdivided into jihad of the pen/tongue (debate or persuasion) and jihad of the sword (warfare). Much of Muslim opinion considers inner jihad to have primacy over outer jihad , although many Western scholars disagree. The analysis of

10165-649: The town of Meiganga and then flows northeast toward the border with the North Province and the Central Africa Republic. The headwaters of the Vina River flow just north of Ngaoundéré before the river enters the North Province. These two rivers eventually merge to form the Logone River . The Mbam , Kim , and Djérem are the major rivers of the Atlantic basin. The Mbam and Kim both rise in

10272-542: The twentieth century, the notion of jihad lost its jurisprudential relevance and instead gave rise to ideological and political discourse. While modernist Islamic scholars have emphasized the defensive and non-military aspects of jihad , some Islamists have advanced aggressive interpretations that go beyond the classical texts. The term has gained additional attention in recent decades through its use by various insurgent Islamic extremist , militant Islamist , and terrorist individuals and organizations. Today,

10379-572: The veracity of this hadith was a contributing factor in the efforts by successive caliphs to subsidize translations of " Greek , Hebrew and Syriac science and philosophy texts", and the saying continues to be heavily emphasised in certain Islamic traditions advocating intellectualism over violence, for example in Timbuktu , where it is central to one of two key lessons in the work Tuhfat al-fudala by 16th-century Berber scholar Ahmed Baba . In general, however, fewer people today are aware of

10486-409: The wars he engaged in were primarily defensive. He never forced non-Muslims to Islam and upheld the truces with non-Muslims so long as they did not violate them. Ibn Taymiyya's views on Jihad are explained in his treatise titled Qāʿidah mukhtaṣarah fī qitāl al-kuffār wa muhādanatuhum wa taḥrīm qatlahum li mujarrad kufrihim . (An abridged rule on fighting the unbelievers and making truces with them, and

10593-483: The word jihad is often used without religious connotations, like the English crusade . The term jihad is derived from the Arabic root jahada , meaning "to exert strength and effort, to use all means in order to accomplish a task". In its expanded sense, it can be fighting the enemies of Islam , as well as adhering to religious teachings, enjoining good and forbidding evil. The peaceful sense of "efforts towards

10700-436: Was a collective one ( fard al-kifaya ). It was to be directed only by the caliph who might delay it when convenient, negotiating truces for up to ten years at a time. Within classical Islamic jurisprudence , during the first few centuries after the prophet's death, jihad consisted of wars against unbelievers, apostated , and was the only form of permissible warfare. Bernard Lewis stated that fighting rebels and bandits

10807-401: Was an "individual obligation" of all believers, including women and children. Scholars had previously claimed it was the responsibility of a centralized government to organize jihad . But this changed as the authority of the Abbasid caliph weakened. Al-Mawardi allowed local governors to wage jihad on the caliph's behalf. This decentralization of jihad became especially pressing after

10914-621: Was at Mecca , when the community had two choices: further emigration ( hijrah ) or war . The Qur'an justifies war in self-defense or in response to aggression towards other Muslims, however the sword verses have historically been interpreted to renounce other verses and justify offensive war against unbelievers, forcibly converting polytheistic pagans during the early Muslim conquests . A set of rules pertaining to jihad were developed, including prohibitions on harming those who are not engaged in combat, on killing animals such as horses, and on unnecessary destruction of enemy property. In

11021-820: Was divided into Centre and South and at the same time, Adamawa and Far North Provinces were split from North Province. See summary of administrative history in Zeitlyn 2018. In 2008, the President of the Republic of Cameroon , President Paul Biya signed decrees abolishing "provinces" and replacing them with "regions". Hence, all of the country's ten provinces are now known as regions. The Northwest region and Southwest region were granted special status in December 2019, giving them additional powers. Jihad Jihad ( / dʒ ɪ ˈ h ɑː d / ; Arabic : جِهَاد , romanized :  jihād [dʒiˈhaːd] )

11128-452: Was legitimate, though not a form of jihad , and that while the classical perception and presentation of jihad was warfare in the field against a foreign enemy, internal jihad "against an infidel renegade, or otherwise illegitimate regime was not unknown." ) However, some argue martyrdom is never automatic, because it is God's province to judge who is worthy of that designation. Classical manuals of Islamic jurisprudence often contained

11235-473: Was often viewed as a political decision best left to political authorities. Two justifications for jihad were given: defensive war against external aggression, or an offensive or preemptive attack against an enemy state. According to the majority of jurists, the casus belli (justifications for war) are restricted to aggression against Muslims, and fitna — persecution of Muslims because of their religious belief. They hold that unbelief in itself

11342-407: Was once highly forested, but repeated brush burning and cattle trampling have changed the terrain. In the south, this is Guinean savanna , a transitional zone between Cameroon's forested south and desert north. On the plateau itself, the savanna continues, though it is less wooded. Grass cover is consistent and thick, and the original vegetation still survives in the river valleys. What few trees dot

11449-504: Was the first Westerner to explore the region extensively, which he did between 1869 and 1873. Nachtigal kept a keen eye out to notice what groups lived in the region, what their relations were like with their neighbours, and what resources could possibly be exploited from the area. The British Eduard E. Flegel followed Nachtigal in 1882. He explored the Adamawa emirate, setting up trade and reaching as far south as Banyo. He died in 1883, however, still on expedition, and peaceful contact between

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