51-543: The Akhmeteli–Varketili Line ( Georgian : ახმეტელი-ვარკეთილის ხაზი ) (formerly known as Didube–Samgori and Gldani–Varketili line; and also alternatively written as Akhmeteli Theatre–Varketili line ) is a line of the Tbilisi Metro , which was opened to the public on 11 January 1966 as a first stage of the metro system and currently cuts the city on north-south axis. The line operates on approximately 19.6 kilometres of route and serves 16 stations. The line
102-528: A calque of Greek σύμφωνον sýmphōnon (plural sýmphōna , σύμφωνα ). Dionysius Thrax calls consonants sýmphōna ( σύμφωνα 'sounded with') because in Greek they can only be pronounced with a vowel. He divides them into two subcategories: hēmíphōna ( ἡμίφωνα 'half-sounded'), which are the continuants , and áphōna ( ἄφωνος 'unsounded'), which correspond to plosives . This description does not apply to some languages, such as
153-457: A vigesimal numeric system like Basque and (partially) French . Numbers greater than 20 and less than 100 are described as the sum of the greatest possible multiple of 20 plus the remainder. For example, "93" literally translates as 'four times twenty plus thirteen' ( ოთხმოცდაცამეტი , otkhmotsdatsamet’i ). One of the most important Georgian dictionaries is the Explanatory dictionary of
204-569: A Roman grammarian from the 2nd century AD. The first direct attestations of the language are inscriptions and palimpsests dating to the 5th century, and the oldest surviving literary work is the 5th century Martyrdom of the Holy Queen Shushanik by Iakob Tsurtaveli . The emergence of Georgian as a written language appears to have been the result of the Christianization of Georgia in the mid-4th century, which led to
255-665: A capital-like effect called Mtavruli for titles and inscriptions. Georgian is an agglutinative language with a complex verb structure that can include up to eight morphemes , exhibiting polypersonalism . The language has seven noun cases and employs a left-branching structure with adjectives preceding nouns and postpositions instead of prepositions. Georgian lacks grammatical gender and articles, with definite meanings established through context. Georgian's rich derivation system allows for extensive noun and verb formation from roots, with many words featuring initial consonant clusters. The Georgian writing system has evolved from ancient scripts to
306-559: A combination of these features, such as "voiceless alveolar stop" [t] . In this case, the airstream mechanism is omitted. Some pairs of consonants like p::b , t::d are sometimes called fortis and lenis , but this is a phonological rather than phonetic distinction. Consonants are scheduled by their features in a number of IPA charts: Symbols to the right in a cell are voiced , to the left are voiceless . Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible. The recently extinct Ubykh language had only 2 or 3 vowels but 84 consonants;
357-544: A consonant that is very similar. For instance, an areal feature of the Pacific Northwest coast is that historical *k has become palatalized in many languages, so that Saanich for example has /tʃ/ and /kʷ/ but no plain /k/ ; similarly, historical *k in the Northwest Caucasian languages became palatalized to /kʲ/ in extinct Ubykh and to /tʃ/ in most Circassian dialects. Symbols to
408-490: A ri means 'friend'; megobrebi ( megob Ø rebi ) means 'friends', with the loss of a in the last syllable of the word stem. Georgian has seven noun cases: nominative , ergative , dative , genitive , instrumental , adverbial and vocative . An interesting feature of Georgian is that, while the subject of a sentence is generally in the nominative case and the object is in the accusative case (or dative), one can find this reversed in many situations (this depends mainly on
459-399: A row, as may be seen in words like გვფრცქვნ ი gvprtskvni 'you peel us' and მწვრთნ ელი mts’vrtneli 'trainer'. Vicenik has observed that Georgian vowels following ejective stops have creaky voice and suggests this may be one cue distinguishing ejectives from their aspirated and voiced counterparts. Georgian has been written in a variety of scripts over its history. Currently
510-589: A word. Georgian vowels in non-initial syllables are pronounced with a shorter duration compared to vowels in initial syllables. long polysyllabic words may have a secondary stress on their third or fourth syllable. Georgian contains many "harmonic clusters" involving two consonants of a similar type (voiced, aspirated, or ejective) that are pronounced with only a single release; e.g. ბგ ერა bgera 'sound', ცხ ოვრება tskhovreba 'life', and წყ ალი ts’q’ali 'water'. There are also frequent consonant clusters , sometimes involving more than six consonants in
561-615: A written language began with the Christianization of Georgia in the 4th century. Georgian phonology features a rich consonant system, including aspirated, voiced, and ejective stops , affricates , and fricatives . Its vowel system consists of five vowels with varying realizations. Georgian prosody involves weak stress, with disagreements among linguists on its placement. The language's phonotactics include complex consonant clusters and harmonic clusters. The Mkhedruli script , dominant in modern usage, corresponds closely to Georgian phonemes and has no case distinction, though it employs
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#1732783506049612-431: Is a (perhaps allophonic) difference in articulation between these segments, with the [j] in [ˈjɛs] yes and [ˈjiʲld] yield and the [w] of [ˈwuʷd] wooed having more constriction and a more definite place of articulation than the [ɪ] in [ˈbɔɪ̯l] boil or [ˈbɪt] bit or the [ʊ] of [ˈfʊt] foot . The other problematic area is that of syllabic consonants, segments articulated as consonants but occupying
663-404: Is also a large carriage reserve park. All the other trains are being retired and scrapped. Type Ezh, Ezh1, was retired from passenger service in 2013. Until 2010, type E was in service since the very opening of the metro. The modernization of the existing fleet includes serious change in the train's interior and exterior, thus replacing the original seats with antivandal seats, the light system in
714-541: Is also colloquially known as the First Line , which is also used as a reference by metro station announcers. The line is served by the Gldani depot (№2), currently 24 four - carriage trains are assigned to it. A mix of Еzh3, Еma-502, Еm-508T as well as the newer 81-714.5, 81-717.5 . Additional Ezh3 and Em-508T subway cars were received in 1985 from Tashkent Metro . All of the trains are undergoing major repairs and there
765-508: Is because syllables in the language often begin with two consonants. Recordings are available on the relevant Wiktionary entries, linked to below. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights : Consonant In articulatory phonetics , a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract , except for the h sound, which is pronounced without any stricture in
816-503: Is concerned with consonant sounds, however they are written. Consonants and vowels correspond to distinct parts of a syllable : The most sonorous part of the syllable (that is, the part that is easiest to sing ), called the syllabic peak or nucleus , is typically a vowel, while the less sonorous margins (called the onset and coda ) are typically consonants. Such syllables may be abbreviated CV, V, and CVC, where C stands for consonant and V stands for vowel. This can be argued to be
867-570: Is less common in non-rhotic accents.) The most frequent consonant in many other languages is /p/ . The most universal consonants around the world (that is, the ones appearing in nearly all languages) are the three voiceless stops /p/ , /t/ , /k/ , and the two nasals /m/ , /n/ . However, even these common five are not completely universal. Several languages in the vicinity of the Sahara Desert , including Arabic , lack /p/ . Several languages of North America, such as Mohawk , lack both of
918-1003: Is rather light, and in fact Georgian transliterates the tenuis stops in foreign words and names with the ejectives. The coronal occlusives ( /tʰ tʼ d n/ , not necessarily affricates) are variously described as apical dental, laminal alveolar, and "dental". Per Canepari, the main realizations of the vowels are [ i ], [ e̞ ], [ ä ], [ o̞ ], [ u ]. Aronson describes their realizations as [ i̞ ], [ e̞ ], [ ä ] (but "slightly fronted"), [ o̞ ], [ u̞ ]. Shosted transcribed one speaker's pronunciation more-or-less consistently with [ i ], [ ɛ ], [ ɑ ], [ ɔ ], [ u ]. Allophonically, [ ə ] may be inserted to break up consonant clusters, as in /dɡas/ [dəɡäs] . In casual speech, /iV, Vi/ sequences can be realized phonetically as [jV~i̯V, Vj~Vi̯]. Phrase-final unstressed vowels may sometimes be partially reduced. Prosody in Georgian involves stress, intonation, and rhythm. Stress
969-401: Is very weak, and linguists disagree as to where stress occurs in words. Jun, Vicenik, and Lofstedt have proposed that Georgian stress and intonation are the result of pitch accents on the first syllable of a word and near the end of a phrase. According to Borise, Georgian has fixed initial word-level stress cued primarily by greater syllable duration and intensity of the initial syllable of
1020-558: Is written with its own unique Georgian scripts , alphabetical systems of unclear origin. Georgian is most closely related to the Zan languages ( Megrelian and Laz ) and more distantly to Svan . Georgian has various dialects , with standard Georgian based on the Kartlian dialect, and all dialects are mutually intelligible. The history of Georgian spans from Early Old Georgian in the 5th century, to Modern Georgian today. Its development as
1071-458: The Dittionario giorgiano e italiano . These were meant to help western Catholic missionaries learn Georgian for evangelical purposes. On the left are IPA symbols, and on the right are the corresponding letters of the modern Georgian alphabet, which is essentially phonemic. Former /qʰ/ ( ჴ ) has merged with /x/ ( ხ ), leaving only the latter. The glottalization of the ejectives
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#17327835060491122-499: The Mkhedruli script is almost completely dominant; the others are used mostly in religious documents and architecture. Mkhedruli has 33 letters in common use; a half dozen more are obsolete in Georgian, though still used in other alphabets, like Mingrelian, Laz, and Svan. The letters of Mkhedruli correspond closely to the phonemes of the Georgian language. According to the traditional account written down by Leonti Mroveli in
1173-516: The Georgian Orthodox Church and together are called Khutsuri 'priest alphabet'. In Mkhedruli , there is no case. Sometimes, however, a capital-like effect, called Mtavruli ('title' or 'heading'), is achieved by modifying the letters so that their vertical sizes are identical and they rest on the baseline with no descenders. These capital-like letters are often used in page headings, chapter titles, monumental inscriptions, and
1224-457: The Kartlian dialect. Over the centuries, it has exerted a strong influence on the other dialects. As a result, they are all, generally, mutually intelligible with standard Georgian, and with one another. The history of the Georgian language is conventionally divided into the following phases: The earliest extant references to Georgian are found in the writings of Marcus Cornelius Fronto ,
1275-518: The Salishan languages , in which plosives may occur without vowels (see Nuxalk ), and the modern concept of "consonant" does not require co-occurrence with a vowel. The word consonant may be used ambiguously for both speech sounds and the letters of the alphabet used to write them. In English, these letters are B , C , D , F , G , J , K , L , M , N , P , Q , S , T , V , X , Z and often H , R , W , Y . In English orthography ,
1326-517: The Taa language has 87 consonants under one analysis , 164 under another , plus some 30 vowels and tone. The types of consonants used in various languages are by no means universal. For instance, nearly all Australian languages lack fricatives; a large percentage of the world's languages lack voiced stops such as /b/ , /d/ , /ɡ/ as phonemes, though they may appear phonetically. Most languages, however, do include one or more fricatives, with /s/ being
1377-457: The 11th century, the first Georgian script was created by the first ruler of the Kingdom of Iberia , Pharnavaz , in the 3rd century BC. The first examples of a Georgian script date from the 5th century AD. There are now three Georgian scripts, called Asomtavruli 'capitals', Nuskhuri 'small letters', and Mkhedruli . The first two are used together as upper and lower case in the writings of
1428-426: The 80-odd consonants of Ubykh , it lacks the plain velar /k/ in native words, as do the related Adyghe and Kabardian languages. But with a few striking exceptions, such as Xavante and Tahitian —which have no dorsal consonants whatsoever—nearly all other languages have at least one velar consonant: most of the few languages that do not have a simple /k/ (that is, a sound that is generally pronounced [k] ) have
1479-574: The Congo , and China , including Mandarin Chinese . In Mandarin, they are historically allophones of /i/ , and spelled that way in Pinyin . Ladefoged and Maddieson call these "fricative vowels" and say that "they can usually be thought of as syllabic fricatives that are allophones of vowels". That is, phonetically they are consonants, but phonemically they behave as vowels. Many Slavic languages allow
1530-659: The English language has consonant sounds, so digraphs like ⟨ch⟩ , ⟨sh⟩ , ⟨th⟩ , and ⟨ng⟩ are used to extend the alphabet, though some letters and digraphs represent more than one consonant. For example, the sound spelled ⟨th⟩ in "this" is a different consonant from the ⟨th⟩ sound in "thin". (In the IPA, these are [ð] and [θ] , respectively.) The word consonant comes from Latin oblique stem cōnsonant- , from cōnsonāns 'sounding-together',
1581-568: The Georgian language ( ქართული ენის განმარტებითი ლექსიკონი ). It consists of eight volumes and about 115,000 words. It was produced between 1950 and 1964, by a team of linguists under the direction of Arnold Chikobava . Georgian has a word derivation system, which allows the derivation of nouns from verb roots both with prefixes and suffixes, for example: It is also possible to derive verbs from nouns: Likewise, verbs can be derived from adjectives, for example: In Georgian many nouns and adjectives begin with two or more contiguous consonants. This
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1632-403: The character of the verb). This is called the dative construction . In the past tense of the transitive verbs, and in the present tense of the verb "to know", the subject is in the ergative case. Georgian has a rich word-derivation system. By using a root, and adding some definite prefixes and suffixes, one can derive many nouns and adjectives from the root. For example, from the root - kart -,
1683-458: The current Mkhedruli, used for most purposes. The language has a robust grammatical framework with unique features such as syncope in morphophonology and a left-branching syntax. Georgian's vocabulary is highly derivational, allowing for diverse word formations, while its numeric system is vigesimal. No claimed genetic links between the Kartvelian languages and any other language family in
1734-498: The following words can be derived: Kart veli ('a Georgian person'), Kart uli ('the Georgian language') and Sa kart velo ('the country of Georgia'). Most Georgian surnames end in - dze 'son' (Western Georgia), - shvili 'child' (Eastern Georgia), - ia (Western Georgia, Samegrelo ), - ani (Western Georgia, Svaneti ), - uri (Eastern Georgia), etc. The ending - eli is a particle of nobility, comparable to French de , Dutch van , German von or Polish - ski . Georgian has
1785-523: The interior is also refurbished. They received a modification of 81-717M/81-714M , similar refurbishments were also made for Baku and Yerevan metro systems. The trains are repainted into silver grey and red livery and receive a new front mask with display on the top part, making some of them visually similar to the 81-71M trains in Prague Metro . Because some of the stations have been operative for over five decades, as well as neglect caused by
1836-641: The labials /p/ and /m/ . The Wichita language of Oklahoma and some West African languages, such as Ijo , lack the consonant /n/ on a phonemic level, but do use it phonetically, as an allophone of another consonant (of /l/ in the case of Ijo, and of /ɾ/ in Wichita). A few languages on Bougainville Island and around Puget Sound , such as Makah , lack both of the nasals [m] and [n] altogether, except in special speech registers such as baby-talk. The 'click language' Nǁng lacks /t/ , and colloquial Samoan lacks both alveolars, /t/ and /n/ . Despite
1887-486: The lack of funding during the 1990s, most of them require a major facelift and some severe repairs on hydroisolation and structure. In February 2021, renovation works began to take place at the Gotsiridze station , and were scheduled to be completed within 3 months. Trains did not stop while construction works were in progress, passing through the station. However, due to the failure of the previous contractor to fulfill
1938-428: The letters H, R, W, Y and the digraph GH are used for both consonants and vowels. For instance, the letter Y stands for the consonant/semi-vowel /j/ in y oke , the vowel /ɪ/ in m y th , the vowel /i/ in funn y , the diphthong /aɪ/ in sk y , and forms several digraphs for other diphthongs, such as sa y , bo y , ke y . Similarly, R commonly indicates or modifies a vowel in non-rhotic accents . This article
1989-498: The like. This is the Georgian standard keyboard layout. The standard Windows keyboard is essentially that of manual typewriters . Georgian is an agglutinative language . Certain prefixes and suffixes can be joined in order to build a verb. In some cases, one verb can have up to eight different morphemes in it at the same time. An example is ageshenebinat ('you [all] should've built [it]'). The verb can be broken down to parts: a-g-e-shen-eb-in-a-t . Each morpheme here contributes to
2040-598: The lungs to generate a sound. Very few natural languages are non-pulmonic, making use of ejectives , implosives , and clicks . Contrasting with consonants are vowels . Since the number of speech sounds in the world's languages is much greater than the number of letters in any one alphabet , linguists have devised systems such as the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to assign a unique and unambiguous symbol to each attested consonant. The English alphabet has fewer consonant letters than
2091-472: The meaning of the verb tense or the person who has performed the verb. The verb conjugation also exhibits polypersonalism ; a verb may potentially include morphemes representing both the subject and the object. In Georgian morphophonology , syncope is a common phenomenon. When a suffix (especially the plural suffix - eb -) is attached to a word that has either of the vowels a or e in the last syllable, this vowel is, in most words, lost. For example, megob
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2142-484: The most common, and a liquid consonant or two, with /l/ the most common. The approximant /w/ is also widespread, and virtually all languages have one or more nasals , though a very few, such as the Central dialect of Rotokas , lack even these. This last language has the smallest number of consonants in the world, with just six. In rhotic American English, the consonants spoken most frequently are /n, ɹ, t/ . ( /ɹ/
2193-663: The nucleus of a syllable. This may be the case for words such as church in rhotic dialects of English, although phoneticians differ in whether they consider this to be a syllabic consonant, /ˈtʃɹ̩tʃ/ , or a rhotic vowel, /ˈtʃɝtʃ/ : Some distinguish an approximant /ɹ/ that corresponds to a vowel /ɝ/ , for rural as /ˈɹɝl/ or [ˈɹʷɝːl̩] ; others see these as a single phoneme, /ˈɹɹ̩l/ . Other languages use fricative and often trilled segments as syllabic nuclei, as in Czech and several languages in Democratic Republic of
2244-463: The obligations and the need to switch to another contractor, reconstruction works were only completed on 18 March 2023. Facilities dedicated to the disabled, such as new elevators and tactile paths were installed. Some of the older expansion plans had the concept of making the line fully circular to encompass Tbilisi Sea from both directions. In perspective, the line could be extended to further neighbourhoods of Gldani and Samgori districts, which
2295-480: The only pattern found in most of the world's languages, and perhaps the primary pattern in all of them. However, the distinction between consonant and vowel is not always clear cut: there are syllabic consonants and non-syllabic vowels in many of the world's languages. One blurry area is in segments variously called semivowels , semiconsonants , or glides . On one side, there are vowel-like segments that are not in themselves syllabic, but form diphthongs as part of
2346-640: The replacement of Aramaic as the literary language . By the 11th century, Old Georgian had developed into Middle Georgian. The most famous work of this period is the epic poem The Knight in the Panther's Skin , written by Shota Rustaveli in the 12th century. In 1629, a certain Nikoloz Cholokashvili authored the first printed books written (partially) in Georgian, the Alphabetum Ibericum sive Georgianum cum Oratione and
2397-576: The syllable nucleus, as the i in English boil [ˈbɔɪ̯l] . On the other, there are approximants that behave like consonants in forming onsets, but are articulated very much like vowels, as the y in English yes [ˈjɛs] . Some phonologists model these as both being the underlying vowel /i/ , so that the English word bit would phonemically be /bit/ , beet would be /bii̯t/ , and yield would be phonemically /i̯ii̯ld/ . Likewise, foot would be /fut/ , food would be /fuu̯d/ , wood would be /u̯ud/ , and wooed would be /u̯uu̯d/ . However, there
2448-651: The trill [r̩] and the lateral [l̩] as syllabic nuclei (see Words without vowels ). In languages like Nuxalk , it is difficult to know what the nucleus of a syllable is, or if all syllables even have nuclei. If the concept of 'syllable' applies in Nuxalk, there are syllabic consonants in words like /sx̩s/ ( /s̩xs̩/ ?) 'seal fat'. Miyako in Japan is similar, with /f̩ks̩/ 'to build' and /ps̩ks̩/ 'to pull'. Each spoken consonant can be distinguished by several phonetic features : All English consonants can be classified by
2499-450: The vocal tract. Examples are [p] and [b], pronounced with the lips ; [t] and [d], pronounced with the front of the tongue ; [k] and [g], pronounced with the back of the tongue; [h] , pronounced throughout the vocal tract; [f] , [v], and [s] , pronounced by forcing air through a narrow channel ( fricatives ); and [m] and [n] , which have air flowing through the nose ( nasals ). Most consonants are pulmonic , using air pressure from
2550-399: The world are accepted in mainstream linguistics. Among the Kartvelian languages, Georgian is most closely related to the so-called Zan languages ( Megrelian and Laz ); glottochronological studies indicate that it split from the latter approximately 2700 years ago. Svan is a more distant relative that split off much earlier, perhaps 4000 years ago. Standard Georgian is largely based on
2601-499: Was realized as a concept in more recent plans of the metro system. Georgian language Georgian ( ქართული ენა , kartuli ena , pronounced [ˈkʰartʰuli ˈena] ) is the most widely spoken Kartvelian language ; it serves as the literary language or lingua franca for speakers of related languages. It is the official language of Georgia and the native or primary language of 88% of its population. Its speakers today amount to approximately 3.8 million. Georgian
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