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63-424: King 'Adud al-Dawla provided the funding for the hospital from the properties that he owned. Before the construction of the building and its quarters, well-known physician, al-Razi , was chosen to decide the ideal location for Al-'Adudi. In order to make the appropriate choice, it is said that different areas of the city were tested by hanging meat and choosing the place that resulted in the minimal amount of decay of

126-465: A Muslim mathematician, philosopher, and natural scientist . This is al-Razi's most famous book. Here he gives systematic attention to basic chemical operations important to the history of pharmacy. In this book al-Razi divides the subject of " matter ' into three categories, as in his previous book Al-Asrar . Similar to the commentary on the 8th century text on amalgams ascribed to Jabir ibn Hayyan , al-Razi gives methods and procedures of coloring

189-399: A Wise and Perfect Creator ), listed under his works on the "divine sciences". None of his works on religion are now extant in full. Sarah Stroumsa has argued that al-Razi was a freethinker who rejected all revealed religions. However, Peter Adamson , Marwan Rashed and others hold that al-Razi did not reject revealed religion, on the basis of more recent evidence found in the writings of

252-423: A belief in five "eternal principles", are fragmentary and only reported by authors who were often hostile to him. A comprehensive thinker, al-Razi made fundamental and enduring contributions to various fields, which he recorded in over 200 manuscripts, and is particularly remembered for numerous advances in medicine through his observations and discoveries. An early proponent of experimental medicine , he became

315-606: A considerate attitude towards his patients. He was charitable to the poor, treated them without payment in any form, and wrote for them a treatise Man La Yaḥḍuruhu al-Ṭabīb , or Who Has No Physician to Attend Him , with medical advice. One former pupil from Tabaristan came to look after him, but as al-Biruni wrote, al-Razi rewarded him for his intentions and sent him back home, proclaiming that his final days were approaching. According to Biruni, al-Razi died in Rey in 925 sixty years of age. Biruni, who considered al-Razi his mentor, among

378-564: A degree much higher than its own natural temperature. Thus the drink would trigger a response from the body, rather than transferring only its own warmth or coldness to it. ( Cf. I. E. Goodman) This line of criticism essentially had the potential to completely refute Galen's theory of humors, as well as Aristotle's theory of the four elements , on which it was grounded. Al-Razi's own alchemical experiments suggested other qualities of matter, such as "oiliness" and "sulphurousness", or inflammability and salinity , which were not readily explained by

441-441: A market place, in well-equipped kitchens, or and in military camps. Thus, every intelligent person could follow its instructions and prepare the proper recipes with good results. Some of the illnesses treated were headaches, colds, coughing, melancholy and diseases of the eye, ear, and stomach. For example, he prescribed for a feverish headache: " 2 parts of duhn (oily extract) of rose , to be mixed with 1 part of vinegar, in which

504-476: A new hospital named after its founder al-Muʿtaḍid (d. 902 CE). Under the reign of Al-Mutadid's son, Al-Muktafi (r. 902–908) al-Razi was commissioned to build a new hospital, which should be the largest of the Abbasid Caliphate . To pick the future hospital's location, al-Razi adopted what is nowadays known as an evidence-based approach suggesting having fresh meat hung in various places throughout

567-581: A piece of linen cloth is dipped and compressed on the forehead". He recommended as a laxative , " 7 drams of dried violet flowers with 20 pears, macerated and well mixed, then strained. Add to this filtrate , 20 drams of sugar for a drink. In cases of melancholy, he invariably recommended prescriptions, which included either poppies or its juice ( opium ), Cuscuta epithymum (clover dodder) or both. For an eye-remedy, he advised myrrh , saffron , and frankincense , 2 drams each, to be mixed with 1 dram of yellow arsenic formed into tablets . Each tablet

630-639: A pioneer of obstetrics and ophthalmology . Al-Razi was born in the city of Ray (modern Rey, also the origin of his name "al-Razi"), into a family of Persian stock and was a native speaker of Persian language . Ray was situated on the Great Silk Road that for centuries facilitated trade and cultural exchanges between East and West. It is located on the southern slopes of the Alborz mountain range situated near Tehran , Iran. In his youth, al-Razi moved to Baghdad where he studied and practiced at

693-644: A series of twelve books to al-Razi, plus an additional seven, including his refutation to al-Kindi 's denial of the validity of alchemy. Al-Kindi (801–873 CE) had been appointed by the Abbasid Caliph Ma'mun founder of Baghdad, to 'the House of Wisdom ' in that city, he was a philosopher and an opponent of alchemy. Al-Razi's two best-known alchemical texts, which largely superseded his earlier ones: al-Asrar (الاسرار "The Secrets"), and Sirr al-Asrar (سر الاسرار "The Secret of Secrets"), which incorporates much of

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756-794: A silver object to imitate gold ( gold leafing ) and the reverse technique of removing its color back to silver. Gilding and silvering of other metals ( alum , calcium salts, iron, copper, and tutty ) are also described, as well as how colors will last for years without tarnishing or changing. Al-Razi classified minerals into six divisions: Al-Razi gives also a list of apparatus used in alchemy. This consists of 2 classes: Although al-Razi wrote extensively on philosophy, most of his works on this subject are now lost. Most of his religio-philosophical ideas, including his belief in five "eternal principles", are only known from fragments and testimonies found in other authors, who were often strongly opposed to his thought. Al-Razi's metaphysical doctrine derives from

819-540: A successful doctor, and served as chief physician of Baghdad and Ray hospitals. As a teacher of medicine , he attracted students of all backgrounds and interests and was said to be compassionate and devoted to the service of his patients, whether rich or poor. He was the first to clinically distinguish between smallpox and measles , and suggest sound treatment for the former. Through translation, his medical works and ideas became known among medieval European practitioners and profoundly influenced medical education in

882-510: A very pronounced redness of the gums. (Rhazes, Encyclopaedia of Medicine) Al-Razi compared the outcome of patients with meningitis treated with blood-letting with the outcome of those treated without it to see if blood-letting could help. Al-Razi contributed in many ways to the early practice of pharmacy by compiling texts, in which he introduces the use of " mercurial ointments" and his development of apparatus such as mortars, flasks, spatulas and phials, which were used in pharmacies until

945-518: Is evident from the title of one of his works, Doubts About Galen . A number of contradictory works and statements about religion have been ascribed to al-Razi. Many sources claim that al-Razi viewed prophecy and revealed religion as unnecessary and delusional, claiming that all humans have the ability to access and discover truth (including the existence of God) through God-given reason. According to these sources, his skepticism of prophecy and view that no one group or religion has privileged access to

1008-451: Is possible... Al-Razi's works present the first systematic classification of carefully observed and verified facts regarding chemical substances, reactions and apparatus, described in a language almost entirely free from mysticism and ambiguity. 'The Secrets' ( al-Asrar , Kitāb al-Asrār , 'Book of Secrets' ) was written in response to a request from al-Razi's close friend, colleague, and former student, Abu Muhammad ibn Yunis al-Bukhari ,

1071-706: Is significant since it contains a celebrated monograph on smallpox, the earliest one known. It was translated into Latin in 1279 by Faraj ben Salim , a physician of Sicilian-Jewish origin employed by Charles of Anjou , and after which it had a considerable influence in Europe. The al-Hawi also criticized the views of Galen , after al-Razi had observed many clinical cases which did not follow Galen's descriptions of fevers. For example, he stated that Galen's descriptions of urinary ailments were inaccurate as he had only seen three cases, while al-Razi had studied hundreds of such cases in hospitals of Baghdad and Rey. Al-Razi

1134-561: Is to do good, even to our enemies, so much more to our friends, and my profession forbids us to do harm to our kindred, as it is instituted for the benefit and welfare of the human race, and God imposed on physicians the oath not to compose mortiferous remedies. This 23-volume set medical textbooks contains the foundation of gynaecology, obstetrics and ophthalmic surgery. This monumental medical encyclopedia in nine volumes—known in Europe also as The Large Comprehensive or Continens Liber ( جامع الكبير )—contains considerations and criticism on

1197-515: The Al-'Adudi was destroyed occurred in 1068 due to a flood of the Tigris. After it was rebuilt, it is said the hospital improved in its facilities and the care provided to patients. However, visitors who passed through the hospital shared that Al-'Adudi did not actually treat patients with the same quality care. Some shared that the physicians only visited patients a couple times a week. The Al-'Adudi Hospital

1260-586: The Greek philosophers Aristotle and Plato , and expresses innovative views on many subjects. Because of this book alone, many scholars consider al-Razi the greatest medical doctor of the Middle Ages . The al-Hawi is not a formal medical encyclopedia, but a posthumous compilation of al-Razi's working notebooks, which included knowledge gathered from other books as well as original observations on diseases and therapies, based on his own clinical experience. It

1323-499: The Greek physician, as far as the alleged superiority of the Greek language and many of his cosmological and medical views. He links medicine with philosophy, and states that sound practice demands independent thinking. He reports that Galen's descriptions do not agree with his own clinical observations regarding the run of a fever. And in some cases he finds that his clinical experience exceeds Galen's. He criticized Galen's theory that

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1386-571: The Latin West. Some volumes of his work Al-Mansuri , namely "On Surgery" and "A General Book on Therapy", became part of the medical curriculum in Western universities. Edward Granville Browne considers him as "probably the greatest and most original of all the Muslim physicians, and one of the most prolific as an author". Additionally, he has been described as the father of pediatrics , and

1449-585: The Latin version was published in 1532. A German translation was published at Strasbourg in 1533 by Hans Schotte . Ibn Jazla also wrote another work, Al-Minhaj fi Al-Adwiah Al-Murakkabah , (Methodology of Compound Drugs), which was translated by Jambolinus and was known in Latin translation as the Cibis et medicines simplicibus. A convert to Islam, he wrote works in praise of Islam and criticising Christianity and Judaism . This article about an Iraqi writer

1512-464: The Sicilian Jewish physician Faraj ben Salem . Ibn Jazla was born of Christian Nestorian parents at Baghdad . He converted to Islam in 1074. He died in 1100 under the tutelage of Abu `Ali ibn Al-Walid Al-Maghribi. His Taqwim al-Abdan fi Tadbir al-Insan ( Dispositio corporum de constitutione hominis, Tacuin agritudinum ), as the name implies: tables in which diseases are arranged like

1575-653: The Tricks of False Prophets ). According to Biruni, the first "was claimed to be against religions" and the second "was claimed as attacking the necessity of the prophets." However, Biruni also listed some other works of al-Razi on religion, including Fi Wujub Da‘wat al-Nabi ‘Ala Man Nakara bi al-Nubuwwat ( Obligation to Propagate the Teachings of the Prophet Against Those who Denied Prophecies ) and Fi anna li al-Insan Khaliqan Mutqinan Hakiman ( That Man has

1638-401: The body possessed four separate " humors " (liquid substances), whose balance are the key to health and a natural body-temperature. A sure way to upset such a system was to insert a liquid with a different temperature into the body resulting in an increase or decrease of bodily heat, which resembled the temperature of that particular fluid. Al-Razi noted that a warm drink would heat up the body to

1701-503: The cause was a diet of beans only. Allegedly, he was approached by a physician offering an ointment to cure his blindness. Al-Razi then asked him how many layers does the eye contain and when he was unable to receive an answer, he declined the treatment stating "my eyes will not be treated by one who does not know the basics of its anatomy". The lectures of al-Razi attracted many students. As Ibn al-Nadim relates in Fihrist , al-Razi

1764-496: The chief of the hospital. Among the medical specialists that worked at Al-'Adudi were also Al-Dakhwar ( optometrist ), Ibn Tufail (surgeon), and Ibn Butlan , who received an education from the institution. Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (full name: أبو بکر محمد بن زکریاء الرازي , Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyāʾ al-Rāzī ), c.  864 or 865–925 or 935 CE , often known as (al-)Razi or by his Latin name Rhazes , also rendered Rhasis ,

1827-480: The city and to build the hospital where meat took longest to rot. He spent the last years of his life in his native Rey suffering from glaucoma . His eye affliction started with cataracts and ended in total blindness. The cause of his blindness is uncertain. One account mentioned by Ibn Juljul attributed the cause to a blow to his head by his patron, Mansur ibn Ishaq , for failing to provide proof for his alchemy theories; while Abulfaraj and Casiri claimed that

1890-429: The early twentieth century. On a professional level, al-Razi introduced many practical, progressive, medical and psychological ideas. He attacked charlatans and fake doctors who roamed the cities and countryside selling their nostrums and "cures". At the same time, he warned that even highly educated doctors did not have the answers to all medical problems and could not cure all sicknesses or heal every disease, which

1953-422: The existence of Al-'Adudi that helped the hospital from the beginning of its founding until the end. Among those were Al-Razi , who helped King 'Adud al-Dawla choose the location of the hospital. Before the death of King 'Adud al-Dawla, Ibn Mandevaih worked under his reign for a salary. During Ibn Mandevaih's time at 'Al-Adudi, he was able to prove his medical knowledge, which allowed him to work further outside of

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2016-574: The first penned a short biography of al-Razi including a bibliography of his numerous works. Ibn al-Nadim recorded an account by al-Razi of a Chinese student who copied down all of Galen 's works in Chinese as al-Razi read them to him out loud after the student learned fluent Arabic in 5 months and attended al-Razi's lectures. After his death, his fame spread beyond the Middle East to Medieval Europe, and lived on. In an undated catalog of

2079-455: The hospital by expert physicians of different areas of medicine that created set plans for patients. In Al-'Adudi, there were twenty-four physicians hired as well as nurses that cared for patients that shared the same sex. After the second construction of Al-'Adudi, the number of physicians increased to twenty-eight. Among the physicians, were specialists such as surgeons , ophthalmologists , orthopedics , oculists and future physicians. Some of

2142-469: The hospital. A physician who received his medical education at Al-'Adudi was Ibn Jazlah . He studied under Ibn Hibat Allah and continued his medical career by contributing to the field with works such as Taqwim al-Abdan fi Tadbir al-Insan (The Almanac of Bodily Parts for the Treatment of People). Ibn al-Tilmidh also contributed to Al-'Adudi during the early part of the 12th century in which he served as

2205-715: The importance for medical students to have direct contact with patients. Al-'Adudi began as one of the hospitals that would work as a place in which students could learn and practice their specialty. The education of medicine became significant during the period of hospitals like Al-'Adudi for the goal of having students move beyond the classroom. Al-'Adudi was modeled after hospitals like those in Jundi-Shapur . Medical students in Al-'Adudi were able to participate in rounds, attend lectures, and have discussions with other medical professionals. As there were physicians of different areas of expertise, students were, for example, able to view

2268-430: The library at Peterborough Abbey , most likely from the 14th century, al-Razi is listed as a part author of ten books on medicine. Al-Razi was one of the world's first great medical experts. He is considered the father of psychology and psychotherapy. Al-Razi wrote: Smallpox appears when blood "boils" and is infected, resulting in vapours being expelled. Thus juvenile blood (which looks like wet extracts appearing on

2331-404: The local bimaristan (hospital). Later, he was invited back to Rey by Mansur ibn Ishaq , then the governor of Ray, and became a bimaristan's head. He dedicated two books on medicine to Mansur ibn Ishaq, The Spiritual Physic and Al-Mansūrī on Medicine . Because of his newly acquired popularity as physician, al-Razi was invited to Baghdad where he assumed the responsibilities of a director in

2394-486: The man Galen from whose sea of knowledge I have drawn much. Indeed, he is the Master and I am the disciple. Although this reverence and appreciation will and should not prevent me from doubting, as I did, what is erroneous in his theories. I imagine and feel deeply in my heart that Galen has chosen me to undertake this task, and if he were alive, he would have congratulated me on what I am doing. I say this because Galen's aim

2457-584: The meat. The site lay on the highest part of the west bank of the Tigris River . It was thus removed from the stagnant air and insects that infested the lower river bank. For this reason, it had previously been chosen as the location of the Khuld Palace , built in the 8th century by Caliph al-Mansur . The completion of the construction of Al-'Adudi was in 981 AD. The Al-'Adudi Hospital was reconstructed twice after its initial development. The first time

2520-489: The patient all over his body. A swelling of the face appears, which comes and goes, and one notices an overall inflammatory color noticeable as a strong redness on both cheeks and around both eyes. One experiences a heaviness of the whole body and great restlessness, which expresses itself as a lot of stretching and yawning. There is a pain in the throat and chest and one finds it difficult to breathe and cough. Additional symptoms are: dryness of breath, thick spittle, hoarseness of

2583-410: The physician should not be blamed when he could not cure them. To add a humorous note, al-Razi felt great pity for physicians who took care for the well being of princes, nobility, and women, because they did not obey the doctor's orders to restrict their diet or get medical treatment, thus making it most difficult being their physician. He also wrote the following on medical ethics : The doctor's aim

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2646-447: The physicians cared for patients and also taught students of medicine. A traveler named, Ibn Jubayr , is said to have described the hospital to be made of many quarters that had large rooms for different purposes. Al-'Adudi was said to resemble characteristics of palaces. It also held some of the most recent pharmaceutical developments. Although the Al-'Adudi Hospital had its main location of function and work for physicians, Ibn Sina , who

2709-539: The previous work. Apparently al-Razi's contemporaries believed that he had obtained the secret of turning iron and copper into gold. Biographer Khosro Moetazed reports in Mohammad Zakaria Razi that a certain General Simjur confronted al-Razi in public, and asked whether that was the underlying reason for his willingness to treat patients without a fee. "It appeared to those present that al-Razi

2772-504: The request of one of the Byzantine emperors. Its lack of dogmatism and its Hippocratic reliance on clinical observation show al-Razi's medical methods. For example, he wrote: The eruption of smallpox is preceded by a continued fever, pain in the back, itching in the nose and nightmares during sleep. These are the more acute symptoms of its approach together with a noticeable pain in the back accompanied by fever and an itching felt by

2835-419: The skills of surgeons who practiced in optometry and orthopedics among other areas of medicine. One way in which the medical knowledge of students was assessed would be by directly asking students questions relating to the medical conditions of the patients in their presence. Among the physicians that taught and assessed students was Hibat Allah Ibn al-Tilmidh . There were numerous experts of medicine throughout

2898-443: The skin) is being transformed into richer blood, having the color of mature wine. At this stage, smallpox shows up essentially as "bubbles found in wine" (as blisters)... this disease can also occur at other times (meaning: not only during childhood). The best thing to do during this first stage is to keep away from it, otherwise this disease might turn into an epidemic. Al-Razi's book al-Judari wa al-Hasbah ( On Smallpox and Measles )

2961-469: The stars in astronomical tables, was translated into Latin. There is a story which says that he was one of the physicians to Charlemagne and that he wrote Tables or Tacuin at the instigation of the latter. This story has no historical foundation unless Ibn Jazla was born two centuries earlier, for indeed, Charlemagne was emperor up to 814. The Tacuin was translated by the Jew Faraj ben Salim and

3024-585: The theologian and philosopher Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (died 1210). Adamson states: It is worth noting that Stroumsa’s work predates Rashed’s discovery of this evidence in Fakhr al-Dīn, so that she did not have the benefit of being able to consider how this new information could be reconciled with the Proofs. That is the goal I will set for myself in this chapter. I should lay my cards on the table and say that I am persuaded by Rashed’s account, and do not believe that Razi

3087-476: The theory of the "five eternals", according to which the world is produced out of an interaction between God and four other eternal principles ( soul , matter , time, and place ). He accepted a pre-socratic type of atomism of the bodies, and for that he differed from both the falasifa and the mutakallimun . While he was influenced by Plato and the medical writers, mainly Galen , he rejected taqlid and thus expressed criticism about some of their views. This

3150-429: The traditional fire, water, earth, and air division of elements. Al-Razi's challenge to the current fundamentals of medical theory was quite controversial. Many accused him of ignorance and arrogance, even though he repeatedly expressed his praise and gratitude to Galen for his contributions and labours, saying: I prayed to God to direct and lead me to the truth in writing this book. It grieves me to oppose and criticize

3213-597: The truth is driven by his view that all people have an equal basic capacity for rationality and discovery of truth, and that apparent differences in this capacity are simply a feature of interest, opportunity, and effort. Because of his supposed rejection of prophecy and acceptance of reason as the primary method for accessing the truth, al-Razi came to be admired as a freethinker by some. According to al-Biruni's Bibliography of al-Razi ( Risāla fī Fihrist Kutub al-Rāzī ), al-Razi wrote two "heretical books": " Fī al-Nubuwwāt ( On Prophecies ) and " Fī Ḥiyal al-Mutanabbīn ( On

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3276-401: The voice, pain and heaviness of the head, restlessness, nausea and anxiety. (Note the difference: restlessness, nausea and anxiety occur more frequently with "measles" than with smallpox. At the other hand, pain in the back is more apparent with smallpox than with measles). Altogether one experiences heat over the whole body, one has an inflamed colon and one shows an overall shining redness, with

3339-513: Was a Persian physician , philosopher and alchemist who lived during the Islamic Golden Age . He is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the history of medicine, and also wrote on logic , astronomy and grammar . He is also known for his criticism of religion , especially with regard to the concepts of prophethood and revelation . However, the religio-philosophical aspects of his thought, which also included

3402-484: Was a leader and well-known physician, asked that prisons also schedule organized regular medical checkups for the prisoners. He gave the physician, Sinan bin Thabit , the job to assign medical officers frequent visits to the prisons. The way of learning for medical students today is similar when compared to the approach for learning medicine in early Islamic hospitals. Al-'Adudi was among the first hospitals that emphasized

3465-430: Was considered a shaikh , an honorary title given to one entitled to teach and surrounded by several circles of students. When someone raised a question, it was passed on to students of the 'first circle'; if they did not know the answer, it was passed on to those of the 'second circle', and so on. When all students would fail to answer, al-Razi himself would consider the query. Al-Razi was a generous person by nature, with

3528-469: Was destroyed for the second time during the Siege of Baghdad in 1258. The hospital was not rebuilt for a third time. Al-'Adudi served as more than a place in which infections were cured. The hospital was both a medical institution and an institution for learning medicine. As it was a Bimaristan , it served individuals of all backgrounds regardless of sex and other identities. Males and females were treated at

3591-406: Was humanly speaking impossible. To become more useful in their services and truer to their calling, al-Razi advised practitioners to keep up with advanced knowledge by continually studying medical books and exposing themselves to new information. He made a distinction between curable and incurable diseases. Pertaining to the latter, he commented that in the case of advanced cases of cancer and leprosy

3654-511: Was possibly the first Persian doctor to deliberately write a home medical manual ( remedial ) directed at the general public. He dedicated it to the poor, the traveller, and the ordinary citizen who could consult it for treatment of common ailments when a doctor was not available. This book is of special interest to the history of pharmacy since similar books were very popular until the 20th century. Al-Razi described in its 36 chapters, diets and drug components that can be found in either an apothecary,

3717-410: Was reluctant to answer; he looked sideways at the general and replied": I understand alchemy and I have been working on the characteristic properties of metals for an extended time. However, it still has not turned out to be evident to me, how one can transmute gold from copper. Despite the research from the ancient scientists done over the past centuries, there has been no answer. I very much doubt if it

3780-407: Was staging a general attack on prophecy or religion as Abū Ḥātim would have us think. Ibn Jazla Abu Ali Yahya ibn Isa ibn Jazla al-Baghdadi or Ibn Jazlah ( Arabic : أبو علي يحيى بن عيسى بن جزله البغدادي ), Latinized as Buhahylyha Bingezla , was an 11th-century Arab physician of Baghdad and author of an influential treatise on regimen that was translated into Latin in 1280 AD by

3843-463: Was the first book describing smallpox and measles as distinct diseases. The work was translated into Syriac, then into Greek. It became known in Europe through this Greek translation, as well as Latin translations based on the Greek text, and was later translated into several European languages. Neither the date nor the author of the Syriac and Greek versions is known; but the Greek was created at

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3906-550: Was to be dissolved in a sufficient quantity of coriander water and used as eye drops. Al-Razi dedicated this work to his patron Abū Ṣāliḥ al-Manṣūr , the Samanid governor of Ray. It was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona around 1180. A Latin translation of it was edited in the 16th century by the Dutch anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius . In his book Doubts about Galen , al-Razi rejects several claims made by

3969-575: Was to seek and find the truth and bring light out of darkness. I wish indeed he were alive to read what I have published. Al-Razi's The Diseases of Children was the first monograph to deal with pediatrics as an independent field of medicine. Al-Razi's interest in alchemy and his strong belief in the possibility of transmutation of lesser metals to silver and gold was attested half a century after his death by Ibn an-Nadim 's book, The Philosopher's Stone ( Lapis Philosophorum in Latin). Nadim attributed

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