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67-576: Born about 1645, it is likely that Exquemelin was a native of Honfleur , France, who on his return from buccaneering settled in Holland , possibly because he was a Huguenot . In 1666 he was engaged by the French West India Company and went to Tortuga , where he worked as an indentured servant for three years. There he enlisted with the buccaneers , in particular with the band of Henry Morgan , whose confidante he was, probably as

134-617: A barber-surgeon , and remained with them until 1674. Shortly afterwards he returned to Europe and settled in Amsterdam where he qualified professionally as a surgeon, his name appearing on the 1679 register of the Dutch Surgeons' Guild. However, he was later once again in the Caribbean as his name appears on the muster-roll as a surgeon in the attack on Cartagena in 1697. The bibliographic legacy of Exquemelin's History of

201-542: A document le fleu de Lestre , meaning "the Lestre river". It could come from a word of Old Norse origin flodh (i.e. flóð ), compare Old English flōd (> flood ), which means 'estuary', 'branch of the sea', combined with flói 'river running into the sea' for the meaning. But according to its numerous old mentions and those of Barfleur in -fleth , it is more probably the OE flēot 'run of water', that can be found in

268-573: A harsh environment for organisms. Sediment often settles in intertidal mudflats which are extremely difficult to colonize. No points of attachment exist for algae , so vegetation based habitat is not established. Sediment can also clog feeding and respiratory structures of species, and special adaptations exist within mudflat species to cope with this problem. Lastly, dissolved oxygen variation can cause problems for life forms. Nutrient-rich sediment from human-made sources can promote primary production life cycles, perhaps leading to eventual decay removing

335-529: A number of coastal water bodies such as coastal lagoons and brackish seas. A more comprehensive definition of an estuary is "a semi-enclosed body of water connected to the sea as far as the tidal limit or the salt intrusion limit and receiving freshwater runoff; however the freshwater inflow may not be perennial, the connection to the sea may be closed for part of the year and tidal influence may be negligible". This broad definition also includes fjords , lagoons , river mouths , and tidal creeks . An estuary

402-571: A significant transit point for goods from Rouen to England. Located on the estuary of one of the principal rivers of France with a safe harbour and relatively rich hinterland, Honfleur profited from its strategic position from the start of the Hundred Years' War . The town's defences were strengthened by Charles V in order to protect the estuary of the Seine from attacks by the English. This

469-408: A type of ecosystem in some estuaries that have been negatively impacted by eutrophication. Cordgrass vegetation dominates the salt marsh landscape. Excess nutrients allow the plants to grow at greater rates in above ground biomass, however less energy is allocated to the roots since nutrients is abundant. This leads to a lower biomass in the vegetation below ground which destabilizes the banks of

536-407: A variety of factors including soil erosion , deforestation , overgrazing , overfishing and the filling of wetlands. Eutrophication may lead to excessive nutrients from sewage and animal wastes; pollutants including heavy metals , polychlorinated biphenyls , radionuclides and hydrocarbons from sewage inputs; and diking or damming for flood control or water diversion. The word "estuary"

603-563: A well-mixed water column and the disappearance of the vertical salinity gradient . The freshwater-seawater boundary is eliminated due to the intense turbulent mixing and eddy effects . The lower reaches of Delaware Bay and the Raritan River in New Jersey are examples of vertically homogeneous estuaries. Inverse estuaries occur in dry climates where evaporation greatly exceeds the inflow of freshwater. A salinity maximum zone

670-436: A wholly marine embayment to any of the other estuary types. The most important variable characteristics of estuary water are the concentration of dissolved oxygen, salinity and sediment load. There is extreme spatial variability in salinity, with a range of near-zero at the tidal limit of tributary rivers to 3.4% at the estuary mouth. At any one point, the salinity will vary considerably over time and seasons, making it

737-477: A wide effect on the surrounding water bodies.  In turn, this can decrease fishing industry sales in one area and across the country. Production in 2016 from recreational and commercial fishing contributes billions of dollars to the United States' gross domestic product (GDP). A decrease in production within this industry can affect any of the 1.7 million people the fishing industry employs yearly across

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804-729: Is a commune in the Calvados department in northwestern France. It is located on the southern bank of the estuary of the Seine across from Le Havre and very close to the exit of the Pont de Normandie . The people that inhabit Honfleur are called Honfleurais. It is especially known for its old port, characterized by its houses with slate-covered frontages, painted frequently by artists. There have been many notable artists, including, Gustave Courbet , Eugène Boudin , Claude Monet and Johan Jongkind . They all meet at La Ferme Saint Siméon, which

871-455: Is a dynamic ecosystem having a connection to the open sea through which the sea water enters with the rhythm of the tides . The effects of tides on estuaries can show nonlinear effects on the movement of water which can have important impacts on the ecosystem and waterflow. The seawater entering the estuary is diluted by the fresh water flowing from rivers and streams. The pattern of dilution varies between different estuaries and depends on

938-435: Is dedicated to Saint Catherine of Alexandria as evidenced by a wooden sculpture above the porch of the bell tower which separates the two naves. She is shown holding a wheel and a sword. The first nave is the oldest part of the building, dating to the second half of the 15th century, constructed right after the Hundred Years' War . It was built on the model of a market hall, using naval construction techniques, which gives

1005-513: Is derived from the Latin word aestuarium meaning tidal inlet of the sea, which in itself is derived from the term aestus , meaning tide. There have been many definitions proposed to describe an estuary. The most widely accepted definition is: "a semi-enclosed coastal body of water, which has a free connection with the open sea, and within which seawater is measurably diluted with freshwater derived from land drainage". However, this definition excludes

1072-411: Is formed, and both riverine and oceanic water flow close to the surface towards this zone. This water is pushed downward and spreads along the bottom in both the seaward and landward direction. Examples of an inverse estuary are Spencer Gulf , South Australia, Saloum River and Casamance River , Senegal. Estuary type varies dramatically depending on freshwater input, and is capable of changing from

1139-566: Is less restricted, and there is a slow but steady exchange of water between the estuary and the ocean. Fjord-type estuaries can be found along the coasts of Alaska , the Puget Sound region of western Washington state , British Columbia , eastern Canada, Greenland , Iceland , New Zealand, and Norway. These estuaries are formed by subsidence or land cut off from the ocean by land movement associated with faulting , volcanoes , and landslides . Inundation from eustatic sea-level rise during

1206-674: Is located on the southern bank of the estuary of the Seine , across from Le Havre and very close to the exit of the Pont de Normandie (nicknamed by the locals "Honfleur bridge"). The town is at the eastern extremity of the 40 km (25 mi) coastline called the Côte Fleurie (Flowery Coast). Like most of northern France, Honfleur has an oceanic climate with warm summers, cool winters, rain all year round and few extremes of temperature. The population has hovered between 7,400 and 10,000 since 1793. As of 2017 , Honfleur had 7,425 inhabitants, who are called Honfleurais . Honfleur

1273-526: Is now a 5-star hotel, and create the "Saint Siméon gathering" contributing to the appearance of the Impressionist movement. The Sainte-Catherine church, which has a bell tower separate from the principal building, is the largest wooden church in France. The first written record of Honfleur is a reference by Richard III, Duke of Normandy , in 1025. By the middle of the 12th century, the city represented

1340-486: Is the seat of a canton including the communes of Ablon , Barneville-la-Bertran , Cricquebœuf , Équemauville , Fourneville , Genneville , Gonneville-sur-Honfleur , Honfleur, Pennedepie , Quetteville , La Rivière-Saint-Sauveur , Saint-Gatien-des-Bois , and Le Theil-en-Auge . These 13 communes also form the intercommunality of Pays de Honfleur. In 1973 Honfleur merged with the commune of Vasouy (143 inhabitants in 1999). The INSEE code used to be 14725. The church

1407-646: Is the whitefish species from the European Alps . Eutrophication reduced the oxygen levels in their habitats so greatly that whitefish eggs could not survive, causing local extinctions. However, some animals, such as carnivorous fish, tend to do well in nutrient-enriched environments and can benefit from eutrophication. This can be seen in populations of bass or pikes. Eutrophication can affect many marine habitats which can lead to economic consequences. The commercial fishing industry relies upon estuaries for approximately 68 percent of their catch by value because of

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1474-536: The First Empire , and in particular the continental blockade, caused the ruin of Honfleur. It only partially recovered during the 19th century with the trading of wood from northern Europe. Trade was however limited by the silting up of the entrance to the port and development of the modern port at Le Havre . The port however still functions today. After the Normandy landings , Honfleur was liberated together by

1541-748: The Holocene Epoch has also contributed to the formation of these estuaries. There are only a small number of tectonically produced estuaries; one example is the San Francisco Bay , which was formed by the crustal movements of the San Andreas Fault system causing the inundation of the lower reaches of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers . In this type of estuary, river output greatly exceeds marine input and tidal effects have minor importance. Freshwater floats on top of

1608-610: The Mandovi estuary in Goa during the monsoon period. As tidal forcing increases, river output becomes less than the marine input. Here, current induced turbulence causes mixing of the whole water column such that salinity varies more longitudinally rather than vertically, leading to a moderately stratified condition. Examples include the Chesapeake Bay and Narragansett Bay . Tidal mixing forces exceed river output, resulting in

1675-640: The Mid-Atlantic coast, and Galveston Bay and Tampa Bay along the Gulf Coast . Bar-built estuaries are found in a place where the deposition of sediment has kept pace with rising sea levels so that the estuaries are shallow and separated from the sea by sand spits or barrier islands. They are relatively common in tropical and subtropical locations. These estuaries are semi-isolated from ocean waters by barrier beaches ( barrier islands and barrier spits ). Formation of barrier beaches partially encloses

1742-524: The Norman toponymy . They are, in any case, close places : Crémanfleur / Crémanville ; Barfleur (former Barbefleu ) / Barbeville, etc. The -ville element is almost always combined with a personal name. The similarity with the name of Bay of Húnaflói in Iceland is likely a coincidence. Honfleur is in the Norman département of Calvados in the traditional district of pays d'Auge . It

1809-734: The Severn Estuary in the United Kingdom and the Ems Dollard along the Dutch-German border. The width-to-depth ratio of these estuaries is typically large, appearing wedge-shaped (in cross-section) in the inner part and broadening and deepening seaward. Water depths rarely exceed 30 m (100 ft). Examples of this type of estuary in the U.S. are the Hudson River , Chesapeake Bay , and Delaware Bay along

1876-478: The black-tailed godwit , rely on estuaries. Two of the main challenges of estuarine life are the variability in salinity and sedimentation . Many species of fish and invertebrates have various methods to control or conform to the shifts in salt concentrations and are termed osmoconformers and osmoregulators . Many animals also burrow to avoid predation and to live in a more stable sedimental environment. However, large numbers of bacteria are found within

1943-475: The 16th century. Traditional pronunciation: [ɦɔ̃'flø] or [xɔ̃'flø]/ [xɔ̃fjø] with the h strongly aspirated, like in 'loch'. It is lost nowadays. The marker -fleur , formerly -fleu which is widespread in Normandy (Cf. Barfleur , Vittefleur , Harfleur , Crémanfleur, Fiquefleur and La Gerfleur stream), which means 'stream, river running into the sea', was still in use in the 13th century as written in

2010-571: The British army – 19th Platoon of the 12th Devon's, 6th Air Landing Brigade, the Belgian army ( Brigade Piron ) on 25 August 1944 and the Canadian army without any combat. Mentioned as Huneflet in 1025 ; Hunefloth in 1051-66 ; Hunefleth in 1082-87 ; Honneflo in 1198 ; Honnefleu in 1255 ; Honflue in 1246 ; Honeflo[u] in 1256 ; Honnefleu in 1588, up to

2077-524: The Buccaneers of America is complex. It was first published in Dutch (1678), then translated into German (1679), Spanish (1681) and English (1684). The German translation is a faithful translation of the original Dutch. The Spanish translation adds new material quite freely and without acknowledgment, and mistranslates the Dutch frequently, while the English translation appears to be as much a translation of

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2144-759: The Danish author and historian Erik Kjærsgaard. For a contemporary reprinting, see Esquemeling, Alexander O., The Buccaneers of America. A true account of the most remarkable assaults committed of late years upon the coasts of West Indies by the Buccaneers of Jamaica and Tortuga (both English and French), containing also Basil Ringrose ’s account of the dangerous voyage and bold assaults of Captain Bartholomew Sharp and others. Peter Benchley , in his book The Island , referred to Exquemelin at length, having used his work in his research. Honfleur Honfleur ( French: [ɔ̃flœʁ] )

2211-625: The English place-names in -fleet , such as Adlingfleet , Marfleet , Ousefleet , combined very often with a male's name. The element Hon- seems to come from an Anglo-Saxon (or Anglo-Scandinavian) given name Huna or the Norse Húni , variant form Húnn , which is also found close to Honfleur in Honnaville, homonym of the Honneville at Saint-Georges-du-Mesnil. Such a connection between two close place-names can be noted regularly in

2278-440: The English translation in 1684, Henry Morgan took steps to discredit the book and successfully brought a libel suit against the book's publishers William Crooke and Thomas Malthus. Morgan particularly objected to the description of the capture of the third castle at Portobello in 1668 where the book said he had ordered the construction of ladders wide enough for three men to climb abreast; when they were completed he "commanded all

2345-511: The Norman dialect. The neo-Norman porch was built following the model of rural Normandy churches in the 1920s, and replaced a monumental doorway in neo-classical style from the previous century (which can be seen in certain canvases by Jongkind and Boudin ). The doorway itself was in Renaissance style . The classical organ comes from the parish church of St Vincent of Rouen , and

2412-609: The Renaissance balcony is decorated with musicians. Stained glass from the 19th century decorates the windows of the east choir. The building lacks a transept ; statues of saints, including two local ones: Saint Marcouf et Saint Thérèse of Lisieux are the unique marks of lateral chapels. There is also a painting depicting the Martyrdom of Saint Denis of the Nativity . The interior is entirely painted in murals, including

2479-502: The Spanish edition, including most of its deviations from the Dutch original. The French translation of 1686 is substantially a new work with many additions, including new pirate biographies ( Daniel Montbars and Alexandre Bras-de-Fer ) and complete rearrangements in some sections incorporating new material of unknown source. Subsequent editions and translations added additional new material and whole biographies. Following publication of

2546-400: The United States. Estuaries are incredibly dynamic systems, where temperature, salinity, turbidity, depth and flow all change daily in response to the tides. This dynamism makes estuaries highly productive habitats, but also make it difficult for many species to survive year-round. As a result, estuaries large and small experience strong seasonal variation in their fish communities. In winter,

2613-452: The bottom where they are harmless. Historically the oysters filtered the estuary's entire water volume of excess nutrients every three or four days. Today that process takes almost a year, and sediment, nutrients, and algae can cause problems in local waters. Some major rivers that run through deserts historically had vast, expansive estuaries that have been reduced to a fraction of their former size, because of dams and diversions. One example

2680-635: The city of Quebec in modern-day Canada. After 1608, Honfleur thrived on trade with Canada, the West Indies , the African coasts and the Azores . As a result, the town became one of the five principal ports for the slave trade in France. During this time the rapid growth of the town saw the demolition of its fortifications on the orders of Colbert . The wars of the French Revolution and

2747-409: The dissolved oxygen from the water; thus hypoxic or anoxic zones can develop. Nitrogen is often the lead cause of eutrophication in estuaries in temperate zones. During a eutrophication event, biogeochemical feedback decreases the amount of available silica . These feedbacks also increase the supply of nitrogen and phosphorus, creating conditions where harmful algal blooms can persist. Given

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2814-401: The effects of modifying the estuarine circulation. Fjord -type estuaries are formed in deeply eroded valleys formed by glaciers . These U-shaped estuaries typically have steep sides, rock bottoms, and underwater sills contoured by glacial movement. The estuary is shallowest at its mouth, where terminal glacial moraines or rock bars form sills that restrict water flow. In the upper reaches of

2881-466: The end of the 18th century. Trade was disturbed during the wars of religion in the 16th century. The port saw the departure of a number of explorers, in particular in 1503 of Binot Paulmierde Gonneville to the coasts of Brazil . In 1506, local man Jean Denis departed for Newfoundland island and the mouth of the Saint Lawrence . An expedition in 1608, organised by Samuel de Champlain , founded

2948-601: The estuary impacted by human activities, and over time may shift the basic composition of the ecosystem, and the reversible or irreversible changes in the abiotic and biotic parts of the systems from the bottom up. For example, Chinese and Russian industrial pollution, such as phenols and heavy metals, has devastated fish stocks in the Amur River and damaged its estuary soil. Estuaries tend to be naturally eutrophic because land runoff discharges nutrients into estuaries. With human activities, land run-off also now includes

3015-424: The estuary, the depth can exceed 300 m (1,000 ft). The width-to-depth ratio is generally small. In estuaries with very shallow sills, tidal oscillations only affect the water down to the depth of the sill, and the waters deeper than that may remain stagnant for a very long time, so there is only an occasional exchange of the deep water of the estuary with the ocean. If the sill depth is deep, water circulation

3082-776: The estuary, with only narrow inlets allowing contact with the ocean waters. Bar-built estuaries typically develop on gently sloping plains located along tectonically stable edges of continents and marginal sea coasts. They are extensive along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the U.S. in areas with active coastal deposition of sediments and where tidal ranges are less than 4 m (13 ft). The barrier beaches that enclose bar-built estuaries have been developed in several ways: Fjords were formed where Pleistocene glaciers deepened and widened existing river valleys so that they become U-shaped in cross-sections. At their mouths there are typically rocks, bars or sills of glacial deposits , which have

3149-609: The fish community is dominated by hardy marine residents, and in summer a variety of marine and anadromous fishes move into and out of estuaries, capitalizing on their high productivity. Estuaries provide a critical habitat to a variety of species that rely on estuaries for life-cycle completion. Pacific Herring ( Clupea pallasii ) are known to lay their eggs in estuaries and bays, surfperch give birth in estuaries, juvenile flatfish and rockfish migrate to estuaries to rear, and anadromous salmonids and lampreys use estuaries as migration corridors. Also, migratory bird populations, such as

3216-400: The great biodiversity of this ecosystem. During an algal bloom , fishermen have noticed a significant increase in the quantity of fish. A sudden increase in primary productivity causes spikes in fish populations which leads to more oxygen being utilized. It is the continued deoxygenation of the water that then causes a decline in fish populations. These effects can begin in estuaries and have

3283-420: The impacts do not end there. Plant death alters the entire food web structure which can result in the death of animals within the afflicted biome . Estuaries are hotspots for biodiversity , containing a majority of commercial fish catch, making the impacts of eutrophication that much greater within estuaries. Some specific estuarine animals feel the effects of eutrophication more strongly than others. One example

3350-407: The impression of an upside-down ship's hull. Then the bell tower was built a good distance away, so that parishioners would not be burnt in case of a fire. Indeed, the bell tower did draw lightning strikes due to its height and its position on the side of a hill. In the late 15th century, a second nave was added, whose vault was like the wooden vaults of modest Gothic churches. This second part

3417-476: The influx of saline water , and to fluvial influences such as flows of freshwater and sediment. The mixing of seawater and freshwater provides high levels of nutrients both in the water column and in sediment , making estuaries among the most productive natural habitats in the world. Most existing estuaries formed during the Holocene epoch with the flooding of river-eroded or glacially scoured valleys when

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3484-464: The kind of men called buccaneers", he "always had and still has hatred". The court found in his favour and the book was retracted; damages of £200 were paid to him. The passage about the use of nuns and monks as a human shield was retracted from subsequent publications in England. For a comparison of the 1678 Dutch edition and the 1686 French translation, see the 1974 translation and interpretation by

3551-525: The many chemicals used as fertilizers in agriculture as well as waste from livestock and humans. Excess oxygen-depleting chemicals in the water can lead to hypoxia and the creation of dead zones . This can result in reductions in water quality, fish, and other animal populations. Overfishing also occurs. Chesapeake Bay once had a flourishing oyster population that has been almost wiped out by overfishing. Oysters filter these pollutants, and either eat them or shape them into small packets that are deposited on

3618-422: The marine environment, such as plastics , pesticides , furans , dioxins , phenols and heavy metals . Such toxins can accumulate in the tissues of many species of aquatic life in a process called bioaccumulation . They also accumulate in benthic environments, such as estuaries and bay muds : a geological record of human activities of the last century. The elemental composition of biofilm reflect areas of

3685-575: The marsh causing increased rates of erosion . A similar phenomenon occurs in mangrove swamps , which are another potential ecosystem in estuaries. An increase in nitrogen causes an increase in shoot growth and a decrease in root growth. Weaker root systems cause a mangrove tree to be less resilient in seasons of drought, which can lead to the death of the mangrove. This shift in above ground and below ground biomass caused by eutrophication could hindered plant success in these ecosystems. Across all biomes, eutrophication often results in plant death but

3752-441: The nave and the side walls are of unequal length, because there were no oak trees long enough to construct them uniformly. Some beams have a footing of stones varying in height, and some have no footing. The bays for the choir, redone in the 19th century, are of rather mediocre quality, and the roof above is higher than those of the older parts. The church is partially covered in chestnut shingles, which are called essentes in

3819-440: The now off-balance nitrogen cycle , estuaries can be driven to phosphorus limitation instead of nitrogen limitation. Estuaries can be severely impacted by an unbalanced phosphorus cycle, as phosphorus interacts with nitrogen and silica availability. With an abundance of nutrients in the ecosystem, plants and algae overgrow and eventually decompose, which produce a significant amount of carbon dioxide. While releasing CO 2 into

3886-399: The religious men and women whom he had taken prisoners to fix them against the walls of the castle ... these were forced, at the head of the companies to raise and apply them to the walls ... Thus many of the religious men and nuns were killed". In Morgan's affidavit he stated that he had "against evil deeds, piracies and robberies the greatest abhorrence and distrust", and that "for

3953-435: The sea level began to rise about 10,000–12,000 years ago. Estuaries are typically classified according to their geomorphological features or to water-circulation patterns. They can have many different names, such as bays , harbors , lagoons , inlets , or sounds , although some of these water bodies do not strictly meet the above definition of an estuary and could be fully saline. Many estuaries suffer degeneration from

4020-427: The seawater in a layer that gradually thins as it moves seaward. The denser seawater moves landward along the bottom of the estuary, forming a wedge-shaped layer that is thinner as it approaches land. As a velocity difference develops between the two layers, shear forces generate internal waves at the interface, mixing the seawater upward with the freshwater. An examples of a salt wedge estuary is Mississippi River and

4087-411: The sediment which has a very high oxygen demand. This reduces the levels of oxygen within the sediment often resulting in partially anoxic conditions, which can be further exacerbated by limited water flow. Phytoplankton are key primary producers in estuaries. They move with the water bodies and can be flushed in and out with the tides . Their productivity is largely dependent upon the turbidity of

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4154-452: The visible wooden vaulting. Honfleur is twinned with: Estuary An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea . Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and maritime environments and are an example of an ecotone . Estuaries are subject both to marine influences such as tides , waves , and

4221-456: The volume of freshwater, the tidal range, and the extent of evaporation of the water in the estuary. Drowned river valleys are also known as coastal plain estuaries. In places where the sea level is rising relative to the land, sea water progressively penetrates into river valleys and the topography of the estuary remains similar to that of a river valley. This is the most common type of estuary in temperate climates. Well-studied estuaries include

4288-453: The water and atmosphere, these organisms are also intaking all or nearly all of the available oxygen creating a hypoxic environment and unbalanced oxygen cycle . The excess carbon in the form of CO 2 can lead to low pH levels and ocean acidification , which is more harmful for vulnerable coastal regions like estuaries. Eutrophication has been seen to negatively impact many plant communities in estuarine ecosystems . Salt marshes are

4355-835: The water. The main phytoplankton present are diatoms and dinoflagellates which are abundant in the sediment. A primary source of food for many organisms on estuaries, including bacteria , is detritus from the settlement of the sedimentation. Of the thirty-two largest cities in the world in the early 1990s, twenty-two were located on estuaries. As ecosystems, estuaries are under threat from human activities such as pollution and overfishing . They are also threatened by sewage, coastal settlement, land clearance and much more. Estuaries are affected by events far upstream, and concentrate materials such as pollutants and sediments. Land run-off and industrial, agricultural, and domestic waste enter rivers and are discharged into estuaries. Contaminants can be introduced which do not disintegrate rapidly in

4422-517: Was more round, and did not look like a ship's hull. In the 16th century, four supplementary bays were added to both naves. The famous "Axe masters" of the naval yards of the city created this building without using any saws, just like their Norman ancestors (who can be seen in action in the Bayeux Tapestry ), and like the Vikings before them. The beams used to create the pillars of

4489-535: Was supported by the nearby port of Harfleur . However, Honfleur was taken and occupied by the English in 1357 and from 1419 to 1450. When under French control, raiding parties often set out from the port to ransack the English coasts, including partially destroying the town of Sandwich , in Kent , England, in the 1450s. At the end of the Hundred Years' War, Honfleur benefited from the boom in maritime trade until

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