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134-628: The Bayeux Tapestry is an embroidered cloth nearly 70 metres (230 feet) long and 50 centimetres (20 inches) tall that depicts the events leading up to the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, led by William, Duke of Normandy challenging Harold II, King of England , and culminating in the Battle of Hastings . It is thought to date to the 11th century, within a few years of the battle. Now widely accepted to have been made in England, perhaps as

268-443: A folk art , using materials that were accessible to nonprofessionals. Examples include Hardanger embroidery from Norway; Merezhka from Ukraine ; Mountmellick embroidery from Ireland; Nakshi kantha from Bangladesh and West Bengal ; Achachi from Peru ; and Brazilian embroidery . Many techniques had a practical use such as Sashiko from Japan , which was used as a way to reinforce clothing. While historically viewed as

402-506: A chamber at the base of the column. At the top of the column was a statue of Trajan. The ground level of the Forum, which is a center of life for Romans, is where the earthly remains of Trajan are buried. The narrative on Trajan's Column unfurls from the base going up, taking a viewer through Trajan's triumph in the Dacian wars and (as originally constructed) finishes with a statue of Trajan above

536-602: A closer look at the reliefs than at the original site. Examples can be studied at: Additionally, individual casts of the frieze are on display in various museums, for example, in the Museum for Ancient Navigation in Mainz . A complete survey in monochrome was published by the German archaeologist Conrad Cichorius between 1896 and 1900 (see Commons ), still forming the base of modern scholarship. Based on Cichorius's work, and on

670-469: A copy of The Epistles of Saint Paul, whose cover was reputedly embroidered by the Queen. In 18th-century England and its colonies, with the rise of the merchant class and the wider availability of luxury materials, rich embroideries began to appear in a secular context. These embroideries took the form of items displayed in private homes of well-to-do citizens, as opposed to a church or royal setting. Even so,

804-408: A fabric mesh to create a dense pattern that completely covers the foundation fabric. Examples of canvas work include bargello and Berlin wool work . Embroidery can also be classified by the similarity of its appearance. In drawn thread work and cutwork , the foundation fabric is deformed or cut away to create holes that are then embellished with embroidery, often with thread in the same color as

938-509: A few similar stitches in a variety of hues. In contrast, many forms of surface embroidery make use of a wide range of stitching patterns in a single piece of work. Training women in traditional embroidery skills in Inner Mongolia , was begun by Bai Jingying as a reaction to the financial pressures caused by the impact of climate change, including desertification , in the region. Embroidery can be classified according to what degree

1072-572: A gift for William, it tells the story from the point of view of the conquering Normans and for centuries has been preserved in Normandy. According to Sylvette Lemagnen, conservator of the tapestry, in her 2005 book La Tapisserie de Bayeux : The Bayeux tapestry is one of the supreme achievements of the Norman Romanesque  .... Its survival almost intact over nine centuries is little short of miraculous ... Its exceptional length,

1206-543: A lifting tower was later also used to great effect by the Renaissance architect Domenico Fontana to relocate obelisks in Rome. From his report, it becomes obvious that the coordination of the lift between the various pulling teams required a considerable amount of concentration and discipline, since, if the force was not applied evenly, the excessive stress on the ropes would make them rupture. In case of Trajan's Column,

1340-622: A mainly Norman army, sometimes called the companions of William the Conqueror . William was the illegitimate son of Robert the Magnificent , Duke of Normandy , and Herleva (or Arlette), a tanner 's daughter. William became Duke of Normandy at the age of seven and was in control of Normandy by the age of nineteen. His half-brother was Bishop Odo of Bayeux . King Edward the Confessor , king of England and about sixty years old at

1474-463: A mark of wealth and status. In medieval England, Opus Anglicanum , a technique used by professional workshops and guilds in medieval England , was used to embellish textiles used in church rituals. In 16th century England, some books, usually bibles or other religious texts, had embroidered bindings. The Bodleian Library in Oxford contains one presented to Queen Elizabeth I in 1583. It also owns

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1608-415: A meal is cooked. A house is burnt by two soldiers, which may indicate some ravaging of the local countryside on the part of the invaders, and underneath, on a smaller scale than the arsonists, a woman holds her boy's hand as she asks for humanity. News is brought to William. The Normans build a motte and bailey at Hastings to defend their position. Messengers are sent between the two armies, and William makes

1742-416: A number which almost corresponds to 100 Roman feet ; beginning slightly above the bottom of the base, the helical staircase inside measures a mere 8 cm (3 in) less. The column is composed of 29 blocks of Luni marble , weighing in total more than 1100 t. The spiral stair itself was carved out of 19 blocks, with a full turn every 14 steps; this arrangement required a more complex geometry than

1876-424: A pastime, activity, or hobby, intended just for women, embroidery has often been used as a form of biography. Women who were unable to access a formal education or, at times, writing implements, were often taught embroidery and utilized it as a means of documenting their lives by telling stories through their embroidery. In terms of documenting the histories of marginalized groups, especially women of color both within

2010-433: A predetermined number of threads in the foundation fabric. Counted-thread embroidery is more easily worked on an even-weave foundation fabric such as embroidery canvas , aida cloth , or specially woven cotton and linen fabrics. Examples include cross-stitch and some forms of blackwork embroidery . While similar to counted thread in regards to technique, in canvas work or needlepoint , threads are stitched through

2144-451: A rare sight in Roman buildings, this space-saving form henceforth spread gradually throughout the empire. Apart from the practical advantages it offered, the design also became closely associated with imperial power, being later adopted by Trajan's successors Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius . In Napoleon 's time, a similar column decorated with a spiral of relief sculpture was erected in

2278-428: A result of an increasing need for relaxation and digitally disconnecting practices. Modern hand embroidery, as opposed to cross-stitching , is characterized by a more "liberal" approach, where stitches are more freely combined in unconventional ways to create various textures and designs. Modern canvas work tends to follow symmetrical counted stitching patterns with designs emerging from the repetition of one or just

2412-492: A scandal that occurred between Ælfgifu of Northampton and Emma of Normandy , Cnut's wives, that eventually led to the crowning of Edward the Confessor, child of Emma and her first husband, Æthelred the Unready . At least two panels of the tapestry are missing, perhaps even another 6.4 m (7.0 yd) in total. This missing area may have depicted William's coronation as King of England. A poem by Baldric of Dol describes

2546-510: A series of figures from the Book of Genesis , and personifications of the month. The Cloth of Saint Gereon , in Germany, is the largest of a group of fragments from hangings based on decorative Byzantine silks , including animals, that are probably the earliest European survivals. The tapestry begins with a panel of Edward the Confessor sending Harold to Normandy. Later Norman sources say that

2680-430: A session and the awkward placing of the tituli is not due to them being added later. Later generations have patched the hanging in numerous places and some of the embroidery (especially in the final scene ) has been reworked. The tapestry may well have maintained much of its original appearance—it now compares closely with a careful drawing made in 1730. The end of the tapestry has been missing from time immemorial and

2814-515: A speech to prepare his army for battle. The Battle of Hastings was fought on 14 October 1066 less than three weeks after the Battle of Stamford Bridge but the tapestry does not provide this context. The English fight on foot behind a shield wall , whilst the Normans are on horses. Two fallen knights are named as Leofwine and Gyrth , Harold's brothers, but both armies are shown fighting bravely. Bishop Odo brandishes his baton or mace and rallies

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2948-459: A streaming tail, now known to be Halley's Comet , then appears. At this point, the lower border of the tapestry shows a fleet of ghost-like ships thus hinting at a future invasion. The news of Harold's coronation is taken to Normandy, whereupon we are told that William is ordering a fleet of ships to be built although it is Bishop Odo shown issuing the instructions. The invaders reach England, and land unopposed. William orders his men to find food, and

3082-559: A tapestry on the walls of the personal apartments of Adela of Normandy , which is very similar to the Bayeux depiction. He describes the closing scene as the coronation of William in London. The Bayeux Tapestry was probably commissioned by the House of Normandy and essentially depicts a Norman viewpoint. However, Harold is shown as brave, and his soldiers are not belittled. Throughout, William

3216-554: A tapestry. Nevertheless, it has always been referred to as a tapestry until recent years when the name "Bayeux Embroidery" has gained ground among certain art historians. It can be seen as a rare example of secular Romanesque art . Tapestries adorned both churches and wealthy houses in Medieval Western Europe, though at 0.5 by 68.38 m (1 ft 8 in by 224 ft 4 in), the Bayeux Tapestry

3350-480: A valuable source of information on Roman and barbarian arms and methods of warfare (such as forts, ships, weapons, etc.) and costume. The relief shows details such as a ballista or catapult. This detail is evident in the variety of trees on the Column, each individually stylised following 37 types, which has led some scholars to identify particular species. The precise details create a strong effect of verisimilitude ;

3484-470: A visual trope that develops further the idea of subjugation by feminizing the foreign conquered. However, on the column is "one of the most unusual, disturbing, and violent depictions of women in Roman art, the torture scene." In this unusual scene, four Dacian women are depicted torturing two naked men. Today, Trajan's Column is the most prominent architectural feature of Trajan's Forum, left nearly intact but now isolated from its original setting. The column

3618-476: A winding apparatus of two cylinders. Despite scholars' concern that the tapestry was becoming damaged the council refused to return it to the cathedral. In 1816, the Society of Antiquaries of London commissioned its historical draughtsman, Charles Stothard , to visit Bayeux to make an accurate hand-coloured facsimile of the tapestry. His drawings were subsequently engraved by James Basire jr. and published by

3752-478: A woman's face. No one knows the significance of this scene or the caption above it: ubi unus clericus et Ælfgyva ("where [or in which ] a certain cleric and Ælfgyva"), where Ælfgyva is the Latinised spelling of Ælfgifu , a popular Anglo-Saxon woman's name (literally "elf-gift"). The use of the grapheme Æ shows familiarity with English spelling. There are two naked male figures in the border below this figure;

3886-477: Is Anglo-Saxon, distinguishing between Anglo-Saxon and other Northern European techniques; Medieval material authority Elizabeth Coatsworth contradicted this: "The attempt to distinguish Anglo-Saxon from other Northern European embroideries before 1100 on the grounds of technique cannot be upheld on the basis of present knowledge." George Beech suggests the tapestry was executed at the Abbey of Saint-Florent de Saumur in

4020-427: Is Harold, since one character appears with an arrow shot in his head under the name "Harold" while another character is slain by a sword underneath the words "was slain" . The final remaining scene shows unarmoured English troops fleeing the battlefield. The last part of the tapestry is missing; however, it is thought that the story contained only one additional scene. The following is a list of known persons depicted on

4154-748: Is a Roman triumphal column in Rome , Italy , that commemorates Roman emperor Trajan 's victory in the Dacian Wars . It was probably constructed under the supervision of the architect Apollodorus of Damascus at the order of the Roman Senate . It is located in Trajan's Forum , north of the Roman Forum . Completed in AD 113, the freestanding column is most famous for its spiral bas relief , which depicts

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4288-507: Is a sort of purity in its primitive forms, especially considering the state of the arts in the eleventh century". The tapestry was becoming a tourist attraction, with Robert Southey complaining of the need to queue to see the work. In the 1843 Hand-book for Travellers in France by John Murray III , a visit was included on "Recommended Route 26 (Caen to Cherbourg via Bayeux)", and this guidebook led John Ruskin to go there; he would describe

4422-493: Is decorated with captured Dacian arms and armor. His ashes and those of his wife, Plotina , were set inside the base in golden urns (which later disappeared from the monument). One reading of this is that Trajan may have intended the column to be his final resting place from the project's inception, and that the similarities in design to other funerary structures made it a natural choice for the Roman Senate. In particular,

4556-515: Is described as dux ("duke"), whereas Harold, also called dux up to his coronation, is subsequently called rex ("king"). The fact that the narrative extensively covers Harold's activities in Normandy (in 1064) indicates that the intention was to show a strong relationship between that expedition and the Norman Conquest starting two years later. It is for this reason that the tapestry is generally seen by modern scholars as an apologia for

4690-399: Is embroidered in crewel ( wool yarn ) on a tabby-woven linen ground 68.38 metres long and 0.5 metres wide (224.3 ft × 1.6 ft) and using two methods of stitching: outline or stem stitch for lettering and the outlines of figures, and couching or laid work for filling in figures. Nine linen panels, between fourteen and three metres in length, were sewn together after each

4824-446: Is exceptionally large. The background is not embroidered, providing a large, clear field of cloth which allows the figures and decorative elements to stand out very clearly. The earliest known written reference to the tapestry is a 1476 inventory of Bayeux Cathedral , but its origins have been the subject of much speculation and controversy. French legend maintained the tapestry was commissioned and created by Queen Matilda , William

4958-411: Is prone to breaking and is avoided. There has also been a development in free hand machine embroidery, new machines have been designed that allow for the user to create free-motion embroidery which has its place in textile arts, quilting, dressmaking, home furnishings and more. Users can use the embroidery software to digitize the digital embroidery designs. These digitized design are then transferred to

5092-460: Is taken there is no clue as to what is being promised. Harold leaves for home and meets again with the old king Edward, who appears to be remonstrating with him. Harold is in a somewhat submissive posture and seems to be in disgrace. However, possibly deliberately, the king's intentions are not made clear. The scene then shifts by about one year to when Edward has become mortally ill and the tapestry strongly suggests that, on his deathbed, he bequeaths

5226-454: Is uncertain whether this work simply reinforced the seams or should be interpreted as decorative embroidery. Depending on time, location and materials available, embroidery could be the domain of a few experts or a widespread, popular technique. This flexibility led to a variety of works, from the royal to the mundane. Examples of high status items include elaborately embroidered clothing, religious objects, and household items often were seen as

5360-405: Is used to add logos and monograms to business shirts or jackets, gifts, and team apparel as well as to decorate household items for the bed and bath and other linens, draperies, and decorator fabrics that mimic the elaborate hand embroidery of the past. Machine embroidery is most typically done with rayon thread , although polyester thread can also be used. Cotton thread, on the other hand,

5494-634: The Capitoline and Quirinal Hills used to be, having been excavated by Trajan, but excavation has revealed that this is not the case. The saddle was where Trajan's Forum and Trajan's Market stood. Hence, the inscription refers to the Trajan's entire building project in the area of the Imperial fora . This is perhaps the most famous example of Roman square capitals , a script often used for stone monuments and, less often, for manuscript writing. As it

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5628-507: The Divine Emperor Caesar Nerva Trajan, son of Nerva , High Priest , [conqueror of] Germany and Dacia, [vested] with the power of the tribune 17 [times], imperator 6 [times], consul 6 [times], father of the nation , for demonstrating [that] a mountain and a place of such height were excavated for such works. It was believed that the column was supposed to stand where the saddle between

5762-613: The Huguenots in 1562; and the next certain reference is from 1724. Antoine Lancelot sent a report to the Académie Royale des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres concerning a sketch he had received about a work concerning William the Conqueror. He had no idea where or what the original was, although he suggested it could have been a tapestry. Despite further enquiries he discovered no more. The Benedictine scholar Bernard de Montfaucon made more successful investigations and found that

5896-603: The Middle Ages . On December 4, 1587, the top was crowned with a bronze figure of Saint Peter the Apostle by Pope Sixtus V , which remains to this day. Trajan's Column was originally flanked by two sections of the Ulpian Library , a Greek chamber and a Latin chamber, which faced each other and had walls lined with niches and wooden bookcases for scrolls. The Latin chamber likely contained Trajan's commentary on

6030-718: The Normandy landings . On 27 June 1944 the Gestapo took the tapestry to the Louvre , and on 18 August, three days before the Wehrmacht withdrew from Paris, Himmler sent a message (intercepted by Bletchley Park ) ordering it to be taken to "a place of safety", thought to be Berlin. It was only on 22 August that the SS attempted to take possession of the tapestry, by which time the Louvre

6164-535: The Place Vendôme in Paris to commemorate his victory at Austerlitz . It is assumed that the column drums were lifted by cranes into their place. Ancient sources, as well as a substantial body of archaeological evidence, show that Roman engineers were capable of raising large weights clear off the ground. The typical drum of Trajan's Column weighs c. 32 t, while the capital , the heaviest block above

6298-496: The early medieval period , this piece is conventionally referred to as a "tapestry", although it is not a "true" tapestry in which the design is woven into the cloth in tapestry weave; it is technically an embroidery , although it meets the traditional broader definition of "tapestry" as: "A textile fabric decorated with designs of ornament or pictorial subjects, painted, embroidered, or woven in colours, used for wall hangings, curtains , covers for seats, ..." The Bayeux tapestry

6432-677: The grave goods of the Oseberg ship and the Överhogdal tapestries . A monastic text from Ely , the Liber Eliensis , mentions a woven narrative wall-hanging commemorating the deeds of Byrhtnoth , killed in 991. Wall-hangings were common by the tenth century with English and Norman texts particularly commending the skill of Anglo-Saxon seamstresses. Mural paintings imitating draperies still exist in France and Italy and there are twelfth-century mentions of other wall-hangings in Normandy and France. A poem by Baldric of Dol might even describe

6566-497: The wars between the Romans and Dacians (101–102 and 105–106). Its design has inspired numerous victory columns , both ancient and modern. The structure is about 30 metres (98 feet) in height, 35 metres (115 feet) including its large pedestal . The shaft is made from a series of 20 colossal Carrara marble drums , each weighing about 32 tons, with a diameter of 3.7 metres (12.1 feet). The 190-metre (620-foot) frieze winds around

6700-424: The "craft of the two hands". In cities such as Damascus , Cairo and Istanbul , embroidery was visible on handkerchiefs , uniforms, flags, calligraphy , shoes, robes , tunics, horse trappings, slippers, sheaths, pouches, covers, and even on leather belts . Craftsmen embroidered items with gold and silver thread. Embroidery cottage industries, some employing over 800 people, grew to supply these items. In

6834-508: The 16th century, in the reign of the Mughal Emperor Akbar , his chronicler Abu al-Fazl ibn Mubarak wrote in the famous Ain-i-Akbari : His majesty [Akbar] pays much attention to various stuffs; hence Irani , Ottoman , and Mongolian articles of wear are in much abundance especially textiles embroidered in the patterns of Nakshi , Saadi , Chikhan , Ari , Zardozi , Wastli , Gota and Kohra . The imperial workshops in

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6968-524: The Bayeux Tapestry itself. The Bayeux Tapestry was therefore not unique at the time it was created: rather it is remarkable for being the sole surviving example of medieval narrative needlework. Very few hangings from the 11th century survive, but the Tapestry of Creation , or Girona Tapestry, is a large Romanesque panel of needlework, in the Museum of Girona Cathedral , Catalonia, Spain. The hanging depicts

7102-592: The Bayeux Tapestry would be loaned to Britain for public display. It had been expected to be exhibited at the British Museum in London in 2022, but strong objections were raised on conservation grounds. It would be the first time in 950 years that the tapesty had left France, although evidence suggests that the tapestry was made in Canterbury. As of April 2024, however, a date for the loan had not yet been finalised. In common with other embroidered hangings of

7236-677: The Bayeux Tapestry: Tituli are included in many scenes to point out names of people and places or to explain briefly the event being depicted. The text is in Latin but at times the style of words and spelling shows an English influence. A dark blue wool, almost black, is mostly used but towards the end of the tapestry other colours are used, sometimes for each word and other times for each letter. The complete text and English translation are displayed beside images of each scene at Bayeux Tapestry tituli . The depiction of events on

7370-500: The Conqueror's wife, and her ladies-in-waiting . Indeed, in France, it is occasionally known as La Tapisserie de la Reine Mathilde ("The Tapestry of Queen Matilda"). However, scholarly analysis in the 20th century concluded it was probably commissioned by William's half-brother, Bishop Odo of Bayeux , who, after the Conquest, also became Earl of Kent and, when William was absent in Normandy, regent of England. The reasons for

7504-541: The Dacian campaigns was to incorporate and integrate Dacia into the Roman Empire as a province. On Trajan's Column, imagery related to wartime violence in general seems to have been downplayed and depictions of violent action towards foreign women and children are nonexistent. Some scholars suggest the lack of battle scenes and large number of construction scenes was meant to speak to the urban population of Rome (the primary audience), addressing their fear and distrust of

7638-413: The Dacian king Decebalus . The two sections are separated by a personification of victory writing on a shield flanked on either side by trophies. Great care was taken to distinguish the men and women from both sides of the campaign as well as the ranks within these distinct groups. The scenes are crowded with sailors, soldiers, statesmen and priests, showing about 2,500 figures in all. It also exists as

7772-530: The Loire Valley and says the detailed depiction of the Breton campaign argues for additional sources in France. Andrew Bridgeford has suggested that the tapestry was actually of English design and encoded with secret messages meant to undermine Norman rule. The first reference to the tapestry is from 1476 when it was listed in an inventory of the treasures of Bayeux Cathedral. It survived the sack of Bayeux by

7906-410: The Louvre in 1797 caused a sensation, with Le Moniteur , which normally dealt with foreign affairs, reporting on it on its first two pages. It inspired a popular musical, La Tapisserie de la Reine Mathilde . It was because the tapestry was regarded as an antiquity rather than a work of art that in 1804 it was returned to Bayeux, wherein 1823 one commentator, A. L. Léchaudé d'Anisy, reported that "there

8040-535: The Norman Conquest. The tapestry's narration seems to place stress on Harold's oath to William, although its rationale is not made clear. Norman sources claim that the English succession was being pledged to William, but English sources give varied accounts. Today it is thought that the Norman sources are to be preferred. Both the tapestry and Norman sources name Stigand , the excommunicated archbishop of Canterbury, as

8174-412: The Norman troops in battle. To reassure his knights that he is still alive and well, William raises his helmet to show his face. The battle becomes very bloody with troops being slaughtered and dismembered corpses littering the ground. King Harold is killed. This scene can be interpreted in different ways, as the name "Harold" appears above a number of knights, making it difficult to identify which character

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8308-510: The Odo commission theory include: Assuming Odo commissioned the tapestry, it was probably designed and constructed in England by Anglo-Saxon artists (Odo's main power base being by then in Kent ); the Latin text contains hints of Anglo-Saxon; other embroideries originate from England at this time; and the vegetable dyes can be found in cloth traditionally woven there. Howard B. Clarke has proposed that

8442-618: The Roman-Dacian Wars, the Dacica , which most scholars agree was intended to be echoed in the spiralling, sculpted narrative design of Trajan's Column. The column shows 2,662 figures and 155 scenes; Trajan himself appears on the column 58 times. The continuous helical frieze winds 23 times from base to capital and was an architectural innovation in its time. The design was adopted by later emperors such as Marcus Aurelius . The narrative band expands from about 1 metre (3.3 feet) at

8576-726: The Society in 1819–23. Stothard's images are still of value as a record of the tapestry as it was before 19th-century restoration. By 1842, the tapestry was displayed in a special-purpose room in the Bibliothèque Publique. It required special storage in 1870, with the threatened invasion of Normandy in the Franco-Prussian War , and again in 1939–1944 by the Ahnenerbe during the German occupation of France and

8710-602: The United States and around the world, embroidery is a means of studying the everyday lives of those whose lives largely went unstudied throughout much of history. Since the late 2010s, there has been a growth in the popularity of embroidering by hand. As a result of visual social media such as Pinterest and Instagram , artists are able to share their work more extensively, which has inspired younger generations to pick up needle and threads. Contemporary embroidery artists believe hand embroidery has grown in popularity as

8844-458: The army by depicting its warfare as one with little collateral damage. The portrayal of the Roman army as relatively gentle may have been designed to support Trajan's image as a man of "justice, clemency, moderation, and restraint". Others have argued that the number of tree-felling scenes on the Column (48 of the 224 trees on the Column are being felled) work alongside the bridging of the Danube at

8978-424: The ascent. The column stands 38.4 m (126.0 ft) high from the ground to the top of the statue base: Located immediately next to the large Basilica Ulpia , it had to be constructed sufficiently tall in order to function as a vantage point and to maintain its own visual impact on the forum. The column proper, that is the shaft without the pedestal, the statue and its base, is 29.76 metres (97.64 feet) high,

9112-423: The base and pedestal, is even at 53.3 t, which had to be lifted 34 m (112 ft) high. To save weight, the treads had probably been carved out before either at the quarry or in situ . Even so, for such loads, the typical Roman treadwheel crane, which could only reach a maximum height of 15 to 18 metres (49–59 feet) in any event, was clearly inadequate. Instead, a tower-like wooden construction

9246-459: The base of the column to 1.2 metres (3.9 feet) at the top. The scenes unfold continuously. Often a variety of different perspectives are used in the same scene, so that more can be revealed ( e.g. , a different angle is used to show men working behind a wall). The relief portrays Trajan's two victorious military campaigns against the Dacians ; the lower half illustrating the first (101–102), and

9380-404: The base, and are meant to speak to a more total conquest of the province than had previously been achieved. Key specific events portrayed are the first crossing of the Danube by the Roman legion, Trajan's voyage up the Danube, the surrender of the Dacians at the close of the first war, the great sacrifice by the Danube bridge during the second war, the assault on the Dacian capital, and the death of

9514-412: The case in 1728, although by that time the purpose was merely to air the hanging, which was otherwise stored in a chest. Clearly, the work was being well cared for. In the eighteenth century, the artistry was regarded as crude or even barbarous—red and yellow multi-coloured horses upset some critics. It was thought to be unfinished because the linen was not covered with embroidery. However, its exhibition in

9648-470: The cathedral he had built, following the precedent of the documented but lost hanging of the Anglo-Saxon warrior Byrhtnoth , bequeathed by his widow to Ely Abbey . Other theories exist. Carola Hicks has suggested the tapestry could possibly have been commissioned by Edith of Wessex , widow of Edward the Confessor and sister of Harold. Wolfgang Grape has challenged the consensus that the embroidery

9782-532: The circumambulation demanded of onlookers of the column's frieze is evocative of Roman funerary practice, drawing attention toward the center – and consequently, the finial of Trajan. The inscription at the base of the column reads: SENATVS·POPVLVS·QVE·ROMANVS IMP·CAESARI·DIVI·NERVAE·F·NERVAE TRAIANO·AVG·GERM·DACICO·PONTIF MAXIMO·TRIB·POT· XVII ·IMP· VI ·COS· VI ·P·P AD·DECLARANDVM·QVANTAE·ALTITVDINIS MONS·ET·LOCVS·TANT[IS·OPER] IBVS·SIT·EGESTVS Translated to English: The Senate and People of Rome , to

9916-412: The column would have been mostly obstructed by two libraries in the Forum which tightly bookended it. Also, because it would have been difficult to follow the spiral frieze from end to end (walking in circles with head inclined), the column's narrative power would have been fairly limited. On the other hand, as French archaeologist Paul Veyne notes, the relief could be read "vertically" from below, with

10050-464: The column, they housed valuable works of literature for the people of Rome. Surely one important text kept here was Trajan's own account of the Dacian Wars, now lost. The reliefs on the column documenting the Dacian campaigns would have provided a vivid complement to Trajan's account of the wars. The people of Rome were reminded of his victories every time they enjoyed the open space and amenities of

10184-496: The column. By having an elevated vantage point, the figures of the scenes, carved in shallow relief and detailed with paint and metal fittings, could be seen more closely (nevertheless it remained impossible for the ancient viewer to follow sequentially the continuous spiral of the reliefs). The problem with visibility of the upper areas is further apparent when we compare Trajan's Column to the Column of Marcus Aurelius . The figures in

10318-433: The crown to Harold. What is probably the coronation ceremony is attended by Stigand , whose position as Archbishop of Canterbury was controversial. Stigand is performing a liturgical function, possibly not the crowning itself. The tapestry labels the celebrant as "Stigant Archieps" (Stigand the archbishop) although by that time he had been excommunicated by the papacy who considered his appointment unlawful. A star with

10452-406: The dangers of conflict and the futility of pursuing power". Embroidery Some of the basic techniques or stitches of the earliest embroidery are chain stitch , buttonhole or blanket stitch , running stitch , satin stitch , and cross stitch . Those stitches remain the fundamental techniques of hand embroidery today. The process used to tailor, patch, mend and reinforce cloth fostered

10586-495: The design takes into account the nature of the base material and by the relationship of stitch placement to the fabric. The main categories are free or surface embroidery , counted-thread embroidery , and needlepoint or canvas work. In free or surface embroidery, designs are applied without regard to the weave of the underlying fabric. Examples include crewel and traditional Chinese and Japanese embroidery. Counted-thread embroidery patterns are created by making stitches over

10720-461: The designer of the tapestry (i.e., the individual responsible for its overall narrative and political argument) was Scolland , the abbot of St Augustine's Abbey in Canterbury , because of his previous position as head of the scriptorium at Mont Saint-Michel (famed for its illumination), his travels to Trajan's Column , and his connections to Wadard and Vital, two individuals identified in

10854-429: The designer presents the images as objective historical truth. The emperor Trajan is depicted realistically in the veristic style, making 58 appearances as the central hero among his troops. Women for the most part occupy and define the margins of the scenes. However, mortal females in Roman state art are so rare it is remarkable that they are included at all in a war monument. In the male discourse of warfare, women are

10988-400: The development of sewing techniques, and the decorative possibilities of sewing led to the art of embroidery. Indeed, the remarkable stability of basic embroidery stitches has been noted: It is a striking fact that in the development of embroidery ... there are no changes of materials or techniques which can be felt or interpreted as advances from a primitive to a later, more refined stage. On

11122-425: The difficulties were exacerbated even further by the simultaneous work on the neighbouring Basilica Ulpia, which limited the available space so that the capstan crews had proper access only from one side. Plaster casts of the relief were taken in the 19th and 20th centuries. After a century of acid pollution , they are now more legible in some details than the original, and the way they are displayed offers students

11256-422: The early twentieth century and developed a machine embroidery industry there. Shiffli machines have continued to evolve and are still used for industrial scale embroidery. Contemporary embroidery is stitched with a computerized embroidery machine using patterns digitized with embroidery software . In machine embroidery , different types of "fills" add texture and design to the finished work. Machine embroidery

11390-484: The embroideries themselves may still have had religious themes. Samplers employing fine silks were produced by the daughters of wealthy families. Embroidery was a skill marking a girl's path into womanhood as well as conveying rank and social standing. Embroidery was an important art and signified social status in the Medieval Islamic world as well. The 17th-century Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi called it

11524-447: The embroidery machine with the help of a flash drive and then the embroidery machine embroiders the selected design onto the fabric. In Greek mythology the goddess Athena is said to have passed down the art of embroidery (along with weaving ) to humans, leading to the famed competition between herself and the mortal Arachne . Trajan%27s Column Trajan's Column ( Italian : Colonna Traiana , Latin : Columna Traiani )

11658-473: The figure of the emperor recognizable across the bands of images—just as, on the Colonne Vendôme , Napoleon's figure can be picked up, scene after scene. Additionally, the two libraries surrounding it provided platforms from which to observe the column if the viewer stood on the top floors, making the complete view of frieze much more visible. While there is certainly evidence that the Trajan's Column

11792-401: The final titulus "Et fuga verterunt Angli" ("and the English left fleeing") is said to be "entirely spurious", added shortly before 1814 at a time of anti-English sentiment. Musset speculates the hanging was originally about 1.5 metres longer. In the last section still remaining, the embroidery has been almost completely restored, but this seems to have been done with at least some regard for

11926-455: The forum. The combination of the column and the magnificent buildings that surrounded it would have created an awe-inspiring spectacle. It is unclear whether the column was meant to serve a commemorative function, as political propaganda, or both. Traditional scholarship held that the column was a glorifying monument, upholding Trajan as Rome's great emperor. However, recent reconstructions of Trajan's Forum have determined that any wide view of

12060-415: The forum. Considering the practice of deification of emperors which was expected during this time period, especially of glorious Trajan, the symbolism may be interpreted as Trajan's earthly remains staying in the Forum with the Roman people while his conquests ascend him up into the heavens. After Trajan's death in 117, the Roman Senate voted to have Trajan's ashes buried in the column's square base, which

12194-406: The foundation fabric. When created with white thread on white linen or cotton, this work is collectively referred to as whitework . However, whitework can either be counted or free. Hardanger embroidery is a counted embroidery and the designs are often geometric. Conversely, styles such as Broderie anglaise are similar to free embroidery, with floral or abstract designs that are not dependent on

12328-512: The greatest scene shift, between Harold's audience with Edward after his return to England and Edward's burial scene , is not marked in any way at all. The tituli are normally in the central zone but occasionally use the top border. The borders are otherwise mostly purely decorative and only sometimes does the decoration complement the action in the central zone. The decoration consists of birds, beasts, fish and scenes from fables, agriculture, and hunting. There are frequent oblique bands separating

12462-628: The hanging was rediscovered by scholars at a time when it was being displayed annually in Bayeux Cathedral . The tapestry is now exhibited at the Musée de la Tapisserie de Bayeux in Bayeux , Normandy , France ( 49°16′28″N 0°42′01″W  /  49.2744°N 0.7003°W  / 49.2744; -0.7003 ). The designs on the Bayeux Tapestry are embroidered rather than in a tapestry weave , so it does not meet narrower definitions of

12596-408: The harmony and freshness of its colours, its exquisite workmanship, and the genius of its guiding spirit combine to make it endlessly fascinating. The cloth consists of 58 scenes, many with Latin tituli , embroidered on linen with coloured woollen yarns. It is likely that it was commissioned by Bishop Odo of Bayeux , William's maternal half-brother, and made for him in England in the 1070s. In 1729,

12730-452: The historical accuracy of the story, the Bayeux Tapestry constitutes a visual record of medieval arms, apparel, and other objects unlike any other artifact surviving from this period. There is no attempt at continuity between scenes, either in individuals' appearance or clothing. The knights carry shields, but show no system of hereditary coats of arms —the beginnings of modern heraldic structure were in place, but would not become standard until

12864-430: The labeling used elsewhere in the work. It was common medieval iconography that a perjurer was to die with a weapon through the eye. Therefore, the tapestry might be said to emphasize William's rightful claim to the throne by depicting Harold as an oath breaker. Whether he actually died in this way remains a mystery and is much debated. There is a panel with what appears to be a clergyman touching or possibly striking

12998-401: The later Column of Marcus Aurelius are more deeply cut and even simplified over the height of the shaft because there were no surrounding buildings to serve as viewing platforms. The different carving style seems to have been adopted to enhance visibility. The two libraries flanking the column helped to further the emperor's program of propaganda. In addition to serving as viewing platforms for

13132-441: The man who crowned Harold, possibly to discredit Harold's kingship; one English source suggests that he was crowned by Ealdred , archbishop of York, and favoured by the papacy, making Harold's position as legitimate king more secure. Contemporary scholarship has not decided the matter, although it is generally thought that Ealdred performed the coronation. Although political propaganda or personal emphasis may have somewhat distorted

13266-478: The material and ensure even stitching tension that prevents pattern distortion. The development of machine embroidery and its mass production came about in stages during the Industrial Revolution . The first embroidery machine was the hand embroidery machine , invented in France in 1832 by Josué Heilmann. The next evolutionary step was the schiffli embroidery machine . The latter borrowed from

13400-406: The middle of the 12th century. It has been noted that the warriors are depicted fighting with bare hands, while other sources indicate the general use of gloves in battle and hunt. The American historian Stephen D. White , in a study of the tapestry, has "cautioned against reading it as an English or Norman story, showing how the animal fables visible in the borders may instead offer a commentary on

13534-407: The mission was for Harold to pledge loyalty to William but the tapestry does not suggest any specific purpose. By mischance, Harold arrives at the wrong location in France and is taken prisoner by Guy, Count of Ponthieu . After exchanges of messages borne by mounted messengers, Harold is released to William, who then invites Harold to accompany him on a campaign against Conan II, Duke of Brittany . On

13668-457: The more usual alternatives of 12 or 16. The quality of the craftsmanship was such that the staircase is practically even, and the joints between the huge blocks still fit accurately. Despite numerous earthquakes in the past, the column today leans at an angle of less than half a degree. Trajan's Column, especially its helical stairway design, exerted a considerable influence on subsequent Roman architecture . While spiral stairs were before still

13802-445: The most economical of expensive yarns; couching is generally used for goldwork . Canvas work techniques, in which large amounts of yarn are buried on the back of the work, use more materials but provide a sturdier and more substantial finished textile. A needle is the main stitching tool in embroidery, and comes in various sizes and types. In both canvas work and surface embroidery an embroidery hoop or frame can be used to stretch

13936-486: The one directly below the figure is in a pose mirroring that of the cleric, squatting and displaying his genitalia (a scene that was frequently censored in historical reproductions). However, similar naked figures appear elsewhere in the lower border where there seems to be no connection at all with the main action. Harold had a younger sister named Ælfgifu (her name is spelt Alveva in the Domesday Book of 1086) who

14070-413: The original stitching. The stylised tree is quite unlike any other tree in the tapestry. The start of the tapestry has also been restored but to a much lesser extent. Norton has reviewed the various measurements of the length of the tapestry itself and of its nine individual linen panels. He has also attempted to estimate the size and architectural design of the 11th-century Bayeux Cathedral. He considers

14204-641: The other hand, we often find in early works a technical accomplishment and high standard of craftsmanship rarely attained in later times. The art of embroidery has been found worldwide and several early examples have been found. Works in China have been dated to the Warring States period (5th–3rd century BC). In a garment from Migration period Sweden, roughly 300–700 AD, the edges of bands of trimming are reinforced with running stitch, back stitch, stem stitch, tailor's buttonhole stitch, and Whip stitch, but it

14338-430: The research of Edward Catich . There have been many other typefaces based on the inscription from such designers as Frederic Goudy and Warren Chappell . The interior of Trajan's Column is hollow: entered by a small doorway at one side of the base, a spiral stair of 185 steps gives access to the platform above, having offered the visitor in antiquity a view over the surrounding Trajan's forum; 43 window slits illuminate

14472-407: The same or contrasting colour. The tapestry's central zone contains most of the action, which sometimes overflows into the borders either for dramatic effect or because depictions would otherwise be very cramped (for example at Edward's death scene ). Events take place in a long series of scenes which are generally separated by highly stylised trees. However, the trees are not placed consistently and

14606-516: The sewing machine and the Jacquard loom to fully automate its operation. The manufacture of machine-made embroideries in St. Gallen in eastern Switzerland flourished in the latter half of the 19th century. Both St. Gallen, Switzerland and Plauen, Germany were important centers for machine embroidery and embroidery machine development. Many Swiss and Germans immigrated to Hudson county, New Jersey in

14740-418: The shaft 23 times. Inside the shaft, a spiral staircase of 185 steps provides access to a viewing deck at the top. The capital block of Trajan's Column weighs 53.3 tons, and had to be lifted to a height of about 34 metres (112 feet). Ancient coins indicate preliminary plans to top the column with a statue of a bird, probably an eagle. After construction, a statue of Trajan was put in place; this disappeared in

14874-476: The sketch was of a small portion of a tapestry preserved at Bayeux Cathedral. In 1729 and 1730, he published drawings and a detailed description of the complete work in the first two volumes of his Les Monuments de la Monarchie française . The drawings were by Antoine Benoît, one of the ablest draughtsmen of that time. The tapestry was first briefly noted in English in 1746 by William Stukeley , in his Palaeographia Britannica . The first detailed account in English

15008-523: The tapestry as "the most interesting thing in its way conceivable". Charles Dickens , however, was not impressed: "It is certainly the work of amateurs; very feeble amateurs at the beginning and very heedless some of them too." During the Second World War Heinrich Himmler coveted the work, regarding it as "important for our glorious and cultured Germanic history". In 2018 French President Emmanuel Macron announced that

15142-423: The tapestry as it was in 1730, show a spear or lance in place of the arrow and no arrow fletchings. Further, needle holes in the linen suggest that something has been removed, or shortened, and fletchings added to form an arrow. A figure is slain with a sword in the subsequent plate, and the phrase above the figure refers to Harold's death ( interfectus est , "he is slain"). This would appear to be more consistent with

15276-441: The tapestry has raised several questions which remain unsettled. The identification of Harold II of England in the vignette depicting his death is disputed. Some recent historians disagree with the traditional view that Harold is the figure struck in the eye with an arrow, and that the arrow is a later 18th/19th century modification following a period of repair. Benoît's engraving of 1729, and Bernard de Montfaucon 's engravings of

15410-639: The tapestry was definitely designed to be hung in Bayeux Cathedral specifically; that it was designed to appeal to a Norman audience; and that it was probably designed for Bishop Odo so as to be displayed at the dedication of the cathedral in 1077 in the presence of William, Matilda, their sons, and Odo. The main yarn colours are terracotta or russet, blue-green, dull gold, olive green, and blue, with small amounts of dark blue or black and sage green. Later repairs are worked in light yellow, orange, and light greens. Laid yarns are couched in place with yarn of

15544-423: The tapestry would have fitted well if it had been hung along the south, west, and north arcades of the nave and that the scenes it depicts can be correlated with positions of the arcade bays in a way that would have been dramatically satisfying. He agrees with earlier speculation that a final panel is missing—one that shows William's coronation and which he thinks was some three metres long. Norton concludes that

15678-435: The tapestry. Alternatively, Christine Grainge has argued that the designer may have been Lanfranc , Archbishop of Canterbury 1070–1089. The actual physical work of stitching was most probably undertaken by women needleworkers. Anglo-Saxon needlework of the more detailed type known as Opus Anglicanum was famous across Europe. It was perhaps commissioned for display in the hall of Odo's palace in Bayeux, and then bequeathed to

15812-465: The throne, and Harold had sworn to honour this, and yet later that Harold had claimed Edward, on his deathbed, had made him heir over William. However, other sources, such as Eadmer dispute this claim. Tapestry fragments have been found in Scandinavia dating from the ninth century and it is thought that Norman and Anglo-Saxon embroidery developed from this sort of work. Examples are to be found in

15946-600: The time the tapestry starts its narration, had no children or any clear successor. Edward's mother, Emma of Normandy , was William's great aunt. At that time succession to the English throne was not by primogeniture but was decided jointly by the king and by an assembly of nobility, the Witenagemot . Harold Godwinson , Earl of Wessex and the most powerful noble in England, was Edward's brother-in-law. The Norman chronicler William of Poitiers reported that Edward had previously determined that William would succeed him on

16080-432: The top half illustrating the second (105–106). These campaigns were contemporary to the time of the column's construction. The frieze repeats standardized scenes of imperial address ( adlocutio ), sacrifice ( lustratio ), and the army setting out on campaign ( profectio ). Scenes of battle are very much a minority on the column; instead it emphasizes images of orderly soldiers carrying out ceremony and construction. The aim of

16214-401: The towns of Lahore , Agra , Fatehpur and Ahmedabad turn out many masterpieces of workmanship in fabrics, and the figures and patterns, knots and variety of fashions which now prevail astonish even the most experienced travelers. Taste for fine material has since become general, and the drapery of embroidered fabrics used at feasts surpasses every description. Conversely, embroidery is also

16348-612: The troubles were over, whereupon he sent it to the city administrators for safekeeping. After the Reign of Terror , the Fine Arts Commission, set up to safeguard national treasures in 1803, required it to be removed to Paris for display at the Musée Napoléon . When Napoleon abandoned his planned invasion of Britain the tapestry's propaganda value was lost and it was returned to Bayeux where the council displayed it on

16482-406: The vignettes. There are nude figures, some of corpses from battle, others of a ribald nature. A harrow , a newly invented implement, is depicted ( scene 10 ) and this is the earliest known depiction. The picture of Halley's Comet , which appears in the upper border ( scene 32 ), is the first known picture of this comet. In 1724, a linen backing cloth was sewn on comparatively crudely and, in around

16616-413: The way, just outside the monastery of Mont Saint-Michel , the army becomes mired in quicksand and Harold saves two Norman soldiers. William's army chases Conan from Dol de Bretagne to Rennes , and Conan finally surrenders at Dinan . William gives Harold arms and armour (possibly knighting him) and Harold takes an oath on saintly relics . Although the writing on the tapestry explicitly states an oath

16750-542: The weave of the fabric. The fabrics and yarns used in traditional embroidery vary from place to place. Wool , linen , and silk have been in use for thousands of years for both fabric and yarn . Today, embroidery thread is manufactured in cotton , rayon , and novelty yarns as well as in traditional wool, linen, and silk. Ribbon embroidery uses narrow ribbon in silk or silk/ organza blend ribbon, most commonly to create floral motifs. Surface embroidery techniques such as chain stitch and couching or laid-work are

16884-533: The year 1800, large ink numerals were written on the backing which broadly enumerate each scene and which are still commonly used for reference. In a series of pictures supported by a written commentary, the tapestry tells the story of the events of 1064–1066 culminating in the Battle of Hastings . The two main protagonists are Harold Godwinson , recently crowned King of England, leading the Anglo-Saxon English, and William, Duke of Normandy , leading

17018-562: Was again in French hands. After the liberation of Paris , on 25 August, the tapestry was again put on public display in the Louvre, and in 1945 it was returned to Bayeux, where it is exhibited at the Musée de la Tapisserie de Bayeux. The inventory listing of 1476 shows that the tapestry was being hung annually in Bayeux Cathedral for the week of the Feast of St John the Baptist ; this was still

17152-431: Was embroidered and the joins were disguised with subsequent embroidery. At the first join (start of scene 14 ) the borders do not line up properly but the technique was improved so that the later joins are practically invisible. The design involved a broad central zone with narrow decorative borders top and bottom. By inspecting the woollen threads behind the linen it is apparent all these aspects were embroidered together at

17286-472: Was erected around the building site, in the midst of which the marble blocks were raised by a system of pulleys , ropes and capstans ; these were powered by a large workforce of men and possibly also draught animals , spread out on the ground. According to modern calculations, eight capstans were needed to hoist the 55 t base block, while the length of rope required for the highest drums measured some 210 metres (690 feet) assuming two-block pulleys. Such

17420-521: Was meant to be read from below, the bottom letters are slightly smaller than the top letters, to give proper perspective. Some, but not all, word divisions are marked with a dot, and many of the words, especially the titles, are abbreviated. In the inscription, numerals are marked with a titulus , a bar across the top of the letters. A small piece at the bottom of the inscription has been lost. The typeface Trajan , designed in 1989 by Carol Twombly , uses letter forms based on this inscription, working from

17554-437: Was not put in an ideal spot for visibility, it is impossible to reject the column as some form of a glorification structure. There is the significant point that the column was extremely challenging to construct, so it is unlikely that it would have been placed in the Forum with the intentions of being hidden or out of plain sight. There is also the important idea of the column as a symbol for Trajan. Trajan's ashes were buried in

17688-560: Was placed toward the northernmost point of the forum, acting as the focal point of the entire forum complex. It was surrounded on three sides by two flanking libraries and the Basilica Ulpia. The two libraries to the northeast and southwest of the column were for the study of scrolls written in Latin and in Greek. These libraries were built in tandem with the column. They apparently included upper level viewing platforms for two sides of

17822-452: Was possibly promised to William by Harold or even betrothed to him, but she died c. 1066, prior to the invasion. Ælfgifu was also the name of the mother of Sweyn Knutsson and Harold Harefoot , past kings of Denmark and England respectively, via Cnut the Great . It has been speculated that this scene, occurring after the meeting of Harold and William, is to remind the contemporary viewers of

17956-509: Was written by Smart Lethieullier , who was living in Paris in 1732–3, and was acquainted with Lancelot and de Montfaucon: it was not published, however, until 1767, as an appendix to Andrew Ducarel 's Anglo-Norman Antiquities . During the French Revolution , in 1792, the tapestry was confiscated as public property to be used for covering military wagons. It was rescued from a wagon by a local lawyer who stored it in his house until

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