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46-576: The 1983 Canadian Expedition to Study the Alpha Ridge (CESAR) seemed to establish that the Alpha Ridge is an extension of the continent from Ellesmere Island and hence there is a possibility that Canada may lay claim to the resource rights for the region, in particular for petroleum , according to the United Nations ' Law of the Sea . There is no final conclusion to the issue so far, and part of

92-460: A political and ecological sense, as well as literally, is an ethical point of view that extends equal inherent value to all living things. It is an understanding of how the earth works, particularly as it relates to its biosphere or biodiversity . It stands in contrast to anthropocentrism , which centers on the value of humans . The related ecocentrism extends inherent value to the whole of nature. Advocates of biocentrism often promote

138-434: A "depth, energy, and function that differ[s] from the ethics that merely involved humans". "Reverence for life" was a "new ethics, because it is not only an extension of ethics, but also a transformation of the nature of ethics". Similarly, Peter Singer argues that non-human animals deserve the same equality of consideration that we extend to human beings. His argument is roughly as follows: Singer's work, while notable in

184-482: A "higher and more authoritative responsibility for creation". The most important aspect of this is the doctrine of Ahimsa (non-violence). The Yājñavalkya Smṛti warns, "the wicked person who kills animals which are protected has to live in hell fire for the days equal to the number of hairs on the body of that animal". The essential aspect of this doctrine is the belief that the Supreme Being incarnates into

230-608: A reason for extending ethical inclusion to the entire biosphere (as in Taylor and Schweitzer). The requirement for environmental ethics to move beyond sentience as criteria for inclusion in the moral realm is discussed in Tom Regan 's 1981 paper "The Nature and Possibility of an Environmental Ethic". Biocentrism is most commonly associated with the work of Paul W. Taylor , especially his book Respect for Nature: A Theory of Environmental Ethics (1986). Taylor maintains that biocentrism

276-444: A resource with technology. The benefits of resource utilization may include increased wealth, proper functioning of a system, or enhanced well. From a human perspective, a regular resource is anything to satisfy human needs and wants. The concept of resources has been developed across many established areas of work, in economics , biology and ecology , computer science , management , and human resources for example - linked to

322-419: A resource. Important examples are agricultural areas, fish and other animals, forests, healthy water and soil, cultivated and natural landscapes. Such conditionally renewable resources are sometimes classified as a third kind of resource or as a subtype of renewable resources. Conditionally renewable resources are presently subject to excess human consumption and the only sustainable long-term use of such resources

368-418: Is also biocentric, as it maintains that all living things are important and that humans are not above other creatures or nature. Buddhism teaches that "once we treat nature as our friend, to cherish it, then we can see the need to change from the attitude of dominating nature to an attitude of working with nature—we are an intrinsic part of all existence rather than seeing ourselves as in control of it." Within

414-460: Is an "attitude of respect for nature", whereby one attempts to make an effort to live one's life in a way that respects the welfare and inherent worth of all living creatures . Taylor states that: Historian Donald Worster traces today's biocentric philosophies, which he sees as part of a recovery of a sense of kinship between man and nature , to the reaction by the British intelligencia of

460-428: Is any physical or virtual component of limited availability within a computer or information management system. Computer resources include means for input, processing, output, communication, and storage. Natural resources are derived from the environment . Many natural resources are essential for human survival, while others are used to satisfy human desire. Conservation is the management of natural resources with

506-514: Is bound together, and that "if one does not care for nature one does not care for oneself.". Another essential Jain teaching is self-restraint . Jainism discourages wasting the gifts of nature, and encourages its practitioners to reduce their needs as far as possible. Gandhi , a great proponent of Jainism, once stated "There is enough in this world for human needs, but not for human wants." In Buddhism : The Buddha 's teachings encourage people "to live simply, to cherish tranquility, to appreciate

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552-476: Is human-centered ( anthropocentric ) and the biological or ecological resource definition is nature-centered ( biocentric or ecocentric ); 2) the economic view includes desire along with necessity, whereas the biological view is about basic biological needs; and 3) economic systems are based on markets of currency exchanged for goods and services, whereas biological systems are based on natural processes of growth, maintenance, and reproduction. A computer resource

598-490: Is increasing as economies develop. There are marked differences in resource distribution and associated economic inequality between regions or countries, with developed countries using more natural resources than developing countries. Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use, that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment . Sustainable development means that we should exploit our resources carefully to meet our present requirement without compromising

644-600: Is part of the High Arctic Large Igneous Province . 84°N 97°W  /  84°N 97°W  / 84; -97 Resource rights Resource refers to all the materials available in our environment which are technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally sustainable and help us to satisfy our needs and wants. Resources can broadly be classified according to their availability as renewable or national and international resources. An item may become

690-446: Is still considered property as people once were. He asserts that ethics should be extended to the land as "an evolutionary possibility and an ecological necessity". He argues that while people's instincts encourage them to compete with others, their ethics encourage them to co-operate with others. He suggests that "the land ethic simply enlarges the boundaries of the community to include soils, waters, plants, and animals, or collectively:

736-468: Is still popularly believed that every tree has a Vriksa-devata (a tree deity). Trees are ritually worshiped through prayer, offerings, and the sacred thread ceremony. The Vriksa-devata worshiped as manifestations of the Divine. Tree planting is considered a religious duty. In Jainism : The Jaina tradition exists in tandem with Hinduism and shares many of its biocentric elements. Ahimsa (non-violence),

782-488: Is the "efficient cause" and Prakrti (nature), is the "material cause" of the universe. However, Brahman and Prakrti are not considered truly divided: "They are one in [sic] the same, or perhaps better stated, they are the one in the many and the many in the one." However, while Hinduism does not give the same direct authority over nature that the Judeo-Christian-Islamic god grants, they are subject to

828-452: Is the case, then "Human ways—human culture—and human actions are as natural as the ways in which any other species of animals behaves". He goes on to suggest that if humans must change their behavior to refrain from disturbing and damaging the natural environment, then that results in setting humans apart from other species and assigning more power to them. This then takes us back to the basic beliefs of anthropocentrism. Watson also claims that

874-638: Is the machinery used in a factory . At the macroeconomic level, "the nation's capital stock includes buildings, equipment, software, and inventories during a given year." Capitals are the most important economic resource. Whereas, tangible resources such as equipment have an actual physical existence, intangible resources such as corporate images, brands and patents, and other intellectual properties exist in abstraction. Typically resources cannot be consumed in their original form, but rather through resource development they must be processed into more usable commodities and usable things. The demand for resources

920-471: Is within the so-called zero ecological footprint , where humans use less than the Earth's ecological capacity to regenerate. Natural resources are also categorized based on distribution: Actual vs. potential natural resources are distinguished as follows: Based on ownership, resources can be classified as individual, community, national, and international. In economics, labor or human resources refers to

966-573: The Catholic tradition of Christian thought, Pope Benedict XVI noted that "the Church’s magisterium expresses grave misgivings about notions of the environment inspired by ecocentrism and biocentrism". This, he stated, was because "such notions eliminate the difference of identity and worth between the human person and other living things. In the name of a supposedly egalitarian vision of the "dignity" of all living creatures, such notions end up abolishing

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1012-701: The Victorian era against the Christian ethic of dominion over nature . He has pointed to Charles Darwin as an important spokesman for the biocentric view in ecological thought and quotes from Darwin's Notebook on Transmutation of Species (1837): If we choose to let conjecture run wild, then animals, our fellow brethren in pain, diseases, death, suffering and famine—our slaves in the most laborious works, our companions in our amusement—they may partake of our origin in one common ancestor—we may be all netted together. In 1859, Charles Darwin published his book On

1058-406: The rights of nature . The purpose of these laws is to prevent the degradation of nature, especially by corporations who may want to exploit natural resources and land space, and to also use the environment as a dumping ground for toxic waste. The first country to include rights of nature in its constitution is Ecuador (see 2008 Constitution of Ecuador ). Article 71 states that nature "has

1104-654: The Origin of Species . This publication sparked the beginning of biocentrist views by introducing evolution and "its removal of humans from their supernatural origins and placement into the framework of natural laws". The work of Aldo Leopold has also been associated with biocentrism. The essay "The Land Ethic" in Leopold's book Sand County Almanac (1949) points out that although throughout history women and slaves have been considered property, all people have now been granted rights and freedoms. Leopold notes that today land

1150-426: The ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The practice of the three R's – reduce, reuse, and recycle must be followed to save and extend the availability of resources. Various problems are related to the usage of resources: Various benefits can result from the wise usage of resources: Biocentrism (ethics) Biocentrism (from Greek βίος bios , "life" and κέντρον kentron , "center"), in

1196-409: The abstract concept of value, which is why heavy emphasis is placed on the fourth pillar. Biocentrism views individual species as parts of the living biosphere. It observes the consequences of reducing biodiversity on both small and large scales and points to the inherent value all species have to the environment. The environment is seen for what it is; the biosphere within which we live and depend on

1242-522: The canon of environmental ethics, should not be considered as fully biocentric. Singer's ethics is extended from humans to nonhuman animals because the criterion for moral inclusion (sentience) is found in both humans and nonhuman animals, thus it would be arbitrary to deny it to nonhuman animals simply because they were not human. However, not all biological entities are sentient, consider: algae, plants and trees, fungi, lichens, mollusks, protozoa, for example. For an ethical theory to be biocentric, it must have

1288-513: The central teaching of Jainism, means more than not hurting other humans. It means intending not to cause physical, mental or spiritual harm to any part of nature. In the words of Mahavira : 'You are that which you wish to harm.' Compassion is a pillar of non-violence. Jainism encourages people to practice an attitude of compassion towards all life. The principle of interdependence is also very important in Jainism. This states that all of nature

1334-447: The concepts of competition , sustainability , conservation , and stewardship . In application within human society , commercial or non-commercial factors require resource allocation through resource management . The concept of resources can also be tied to the direction of leadership over resources; this may include human resources issues, for which leaders are responsible, in managing, supporting, or directing those matters and

1380-424: The distinctiveness and superior role of human beings." Biocentrism has faced criticism for a number of reasons. Some of this criticism grows out of the concern that biocentrism is an anti-human paradigm and that it will not hesitate to sacrifice human well-being for the greater good. Biocentrism has also been criticized for its individualism ; emphasizing too much on the importance of individual life and neglecting

1426-590: The earth's natural and subtle means of praising God. The Qur'an acknowledges that humans are not the only all-important creatures and emphasizes a respect for nature. Muhammad was once asked whether there would be a reward for those who show charity to nature and animals, to which he replied, "for charity shown to each creature with a wet heart [i.e. that is alive], there is a reward." In Hinduism : Hinduism contains many elements of biocentrism. In Hinduism, humans have no special authority over other creatures, and all living things have souls (' atman '). Brahman (God)

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1472-582: The forms of various species. The Hindu belief in Saṃsāra (the cycle of life, death and rebirth) encompasses reincarnation into non-human forms. It is believed that one lives 8,400,000 lifetimes before one becomes a human. Each species is in this process of samsara until one attains moksha (liberation). Another doctrinal source for the equal treatment of all life is found in the Rigveda . The Rigveda states that trees and plants possess divine healing properties. It

1518-417: The goal of sustainability . Natural resources may be further classified in different ways. Resources can be categorized based on origin: Natural resources are also categorized based on the stage of development: Natural resources can be categorized based on renewability: Depending upon the speed and quantity of consumption, overconsumption can lead to depletion or the total and everlasting destruction of

1564-499: The human work in the production of goods and rendering of services. Human resources can be defined in terms of skills, energy, talent, abilities, or knowledge. In a project management context, human resources are those employees responsible for undertaking the activities defined in the project plan. In economics , capital goods or capital are "those durable produced goods that are in turn used as productive inputs for further production" of goods and services. A typical example

1610-412: The importance of collective groups, such as an ecosystem. A more complex form of criticism focuses on the contradictions of biocentrism. Opposed to anthropocentrism , which sees humans as having a higher status than other species, biocentrism puts humans on a par with the rest of nature, and not above it. In his essay A Critique of Anti-Anthropocentric Biocentrism Richard Watson suggests that if this

1656-537: The land". In a sense this attitude would encourage humans to co-operate with the land rather than compete with it. Outside of formal philosophical works biocentric thought is common among pre-colonial tribal peoples who knew no world other than the natural world. The paradigm of biocentrism and the values that it promotes are beginning to be used in law. In recent years (as of 2011), cities in Maine, Pennsylvania, New Hampshire and Virginia have adopted laws that protect

1702-578: The living systems of which we are a part adversely affect us as well, whether or not we maintain a biocentric worldview . Biocentrists observe that all species have inherent value , and that humans are not "superior" to other species in a moral or ethical sense. The four main pillars of a biocentric outlook are: The most important of these four main pillars is likely the idea that human beings are not inherently superior to other living things. People have divergent views on many specific aspects of almost everything. Not all biocentrists even subscribe to

1748-728: The maintaining of its diversity for our health. From these observations the ethical points are raised. Biocentric ethics differs from classical and traditional ethical thinking. Rather than focusing on strict moral rules, as in Classical ethics, it focuses on attitudes and character. In contrast with traditional ethics, it is nonhierarchical and gives priority to the natural world rather than to humankind exclusively. Biocentric ethics includes Albert Schweitzer 's ethics of " Reverence for Life ", Peter Singer 's ethics of Animal Liberation and Paul W. Taylor 's ethics of biocentric egalitarianism. Albert Schweitzer's "reverence for life" principle

1794-434: The natural cycle of life". Buddhism emphasizes that everything in the universe affects everything else. "Nature is an ecosystem in which trees affect climate, the soil, and the animals, just as the climate affects the trees, the soil, the animals and so on. The ocean, the sky, the air are all interrelated, and interdependent—water is life and air is life." Although this holistic approach is more ecocentric than biocentric, it

1840-464: The preservation of biodiversity , animal rights , and environmental protection . The term has also been employed by advocates of " left biocentrism", which combines deep ecology with an " anti-industrial and anti-capitalist " position (according to David Orton et al. ). In the simplest of terms as well as form, biocentrism is the belief that all living organisms, regardless of species, complexity, or traits, individually possess equal value and

1886-512: The research planned for the European Drilling Research Icebreaker ( Aurora Borealis ) was drilling of the Alpha Ridge to collect more data. Other research suggests that the ridge is probably a result of the oceanic mode of development. The Strand Fiord Formation on northwestern and west-central Axel Heiberg Island is interpreted to represent the cratonward extension of the Alpha Ridge. The Alpha Ridge

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1932-447: The resulting necessary actions. For example, in the cases of professional groups , innovative leaders and technical experts in archiving expertise , academic management , association management , business management , healthcare management , military management , public administration , spiritual leadership and social networking administration . Resource competition can vary from completely symmetric (all individuals receive

1978-506: The right to integral respect for its existence and for the maintenance and regeneration of its life cycles, structure, functions and evolutionary processes". In Islam : In Islam, biocentric ethics stem from the belief that all of creation belongs to Allah (God), not humans, and to assume that non-human animals and plants exist merely to benefit humankind leads to environmental destruction and misuse. As all living organisms exist to praise God, human destruction of other living things prevents

2024-406: The same amount of resources, irrespective of their size, known also as scramble competition ) to perfectly size symmetric (all individuals exploit the same amount of resource per unit biomass) to absolutely size asymmetric (the largest individuals exploit all the available resource). There are three fundamental differences between economic versus ecological views: 1) the economic resource definition

2070-565: The same exact right to live, requiring identical moral treatment, regard, and prioritization. Usually, the term biocentrism encompasses all environmental ethics that "extend the status of moral object from human beings to all living things in nature". Biocentric ethics calls for a rethinking of the relationship between humans and nature. It states that nature does not exist simply to be used or consumed by humans, but that humans are simply one species amongst many, and that because we are part of an ecosystem , any actions which negatively affect

2116-455: Was a precursor of modern biocentric ethics. In contrast with traditional ethics, the ethics of "reverence for life" denies any distinction between "high and low" or "valuable and less valuable" life forms, dismissing such categorization as arbitrary and subjective. Conventional ethics concerned itself exclusively with human beings—that is to say, morality applied only to interpersonal relationships—whereas Schweitzer's ethical philosophy introduced

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