97-601: The Apportionment Act of 1792 (1 Stat. 253 ) was the first Apportionment Act passed by the United States Congress on April 10, 1792, and signed into law by President George Washington on April 14, 1792. The Act set the number of members of the United States House of Representatives at 105, effective with the 3rd Congress on March 4, 1793, and established that a number of representatives would be allotted to each state based on
194-403: A homosocial or even homosexual relationship. Biographer Gregory D. Massey amongst others, by contrast, dismisses all such speculation as unsubstantiated, describing their friendship as purely platonic camaraderie instead and placing their correspondence in the context of the flowery diction of the time. While on Washington's staff, Hamilton long sought command and a return to active combat. As
291-608: A joint resolution of Congress . During Little, Brown and Company's time as publisher, Richard Peters (Volumes 1–8), George Minot (Volumes 9–11), and George P. Sanger (Volumes 11–17) served as editors. In 1874, Congress transferred the authority to publish the Statutes at Large to the Government Printing Office under the direction of the Secretary of State. Pub. L. 80–278 , 61 Stat. 633,
388-840: A whiskey tax . He opposed American entanglement with the succession of unstable French Revolutionary governments and advocated in support of the Jay Treaty under which the U.S. resumed friendly trade relations with the British Empire . He also persuaded Congress to establish the Revenue Cutter Service . Hamilton's views became the basis for the Federalist Party , which was opposed by the Democratic-Republican Party led by Thomas Jefferson . Hamilton and other Federalists supported
485-637: A claim for damages done to a brewery by the Englishmen who held it during the military occupation of New York. He pleaded for the mayor's court to interpret state law consistent with the 1783 Treaty of Paris, which had ended the Revolutionary War. In 1784, Hamilton founded the Bank of New York . Long dissatisfied with the Articles of Confederation as too weak to be effective, Hamilton played
582-886: A delegate from New York to the Congress of the Confederation in Philadelphia . He resigned to practice law and founded the Bank of New York . In 1786, Hamilton led the Annapolis Convention to replace the Articles of Confederation with the Constitution of the United States , which he helped ratify by writing 51 of the 85 installments of The Federalist Papers . As a trusted member of President Washington's first cabinet , Hamilton served as
679-416: A different group of disgruntled soldiers from Lancaster, Pennsylvania , sent Congress a petition demanding their back pay. When they began to march toward Philadelphia , Congress charged Hamilton and two others with intercepting the mob. Hamilton requested militia from Pennsylvania's Supreme Executive Council, but was turned down. Hamilton instructed Assistant Secretary of War William Jackson to intercept
776-622: A duel . In the July 11, 1804, duel in Weehawken, New Jersey , Burr shot Hamilton in the stomach. Hamilton was immediately transported to the home of William Bayard Jr. in Greenwich Village for medical attention, but succumbed to his wounds the following day. Scholars generally regard Hamilton as an astute and intellectually brilliant administrator, politician, and financier who was sometimes impetuous. His ideas are credited with laying
873-404: A field command. Washington continued to demur, citing the need to appoint men of higher rank. This continued until early July 1781, when Hamilton submitted a letter to Washington with his commission enclosed, "thus tacitly threatening to resign if he didn't get his desired command." On July 31, Washington relented and assigned Hamilton as commander of a battalion of light infantry companies of
970-580: A lump-sum payment if Congress were unable to afford the half-salary pensions for life. Congress rejected the proposal. Several congressmen, including Hamilton, Robert Morris , and Gouverneur Morris , attempted to use the so-called Newburgh Conspiracy as leverage to secure support from the states and in Congress for funding of the national government. They encouraged MacDougall to continue his aggressive approach, implying unknown consequences if their demands were not met, and defeated proposals designed to end
1067-408: A major leadership role at the 1786 Annapolis Convention . He drafted its resolution for a constitutional convention, and in doing so brought one step closer to reality his longtime desire to have a more effectual, more financially self-sufficient federal government. As a member of the legislature of New York, Hamilton argued forcefully and at length in favor of a bill to recognize the sovereignty of
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#17327648334651164-433: A married woman of half-British and half- French Huguenot descent, and James A. Hamilton, a Scotsman who was the fourth son of Alexander Hamilton, the laird of Grange, Ayrshire . Rachel Lavien was married on Saint Croix . In 1750, Lavien left her husband and first son before travelling to Saint Kitts , where she met James Hamilton. Hamilton and Lavien moved together to Nevis, her birthplace, where she had inherited
1261-416: A ratio of one member for every thirty-three thousand persons in each state, computed according to the rule prescribed by the constitution; that is to say: Within the state of New Hampshire, four; within the state of Massachusetts, fourteen; within the state of Vermont, two; within the state of Rhode Island, two; within the state of Connecticut, seven; within the state of New York, ten; within
1358-595: A seaside lot in town from her father. While their mother was living, Alexander and James Jr. received individual tutoring and classes in a private school led by a Jewish headmistress. Alexander supplemented his education with a family library of 34 books. James Hamilton later abandoned Rachel Lavien and their two sons, allegedly to "spar[e] [her] a charge of bigamy ...after finding out that her first husband intend[ed] to divorce her under Danish law on grounds of adultery and desertion." Lavien then moved with her two children to Saint Croix, where she supported them by managing
1455-740: A small store in Christiansted . Lavien contracted yellow fever and died on February 19, 1768, leaving Hamilton orphaned. Lavien's death may have had a severe emotional impact on Hamilton. In probate court , Lavien's "first husband seized her estate" and obtained the few valuables that she had owned, including some household silver. Many items were auctioned off, but a friend purchased the family's books and returned them to Hamilton. The brothers were briefly taken in by their cousin Peter Lytton. However, Lytton took his own life in July 1769, leaving his property to his mistress and their son, and
1552-480: A stimulant to the economy. Hamilton divided the debt into national and state, and further divided the national debt into foreign and domestic debt. While there was agreement on how to handle the foreign debt, especially with France, there was not with regards to the national debt held by domestic creditors. During the Revolutionary War, affluent citizens had invested in bonds, and war veterans had been paid with promissory notes and IOUs that plummeted in price during
1649-693: A three-part process, consisting of slip laws, session laws ( Statutes at Large ), and codification ( United States Code ). Large portions of public laws are enacted as amendments to the United States Code . Once enacted into law, an Act will be published in the Statutes at Large and will add to, modify, or delete some part of the United States Code. Provisions of a public law that contain only enacting clauses, effective dates, and similar matters are not generally codified . Private laws also are not generally codified. Some portions of
1746-479: Is a want of power in Congress ... the confederation itself is defective and requires to be altered; it is neither fit for war, nor peace." While on Washington's staff, Hamilton had become frustrated with the decentralized nature of the wartime Continental Congress, particularly its dependence upon the states for voluntary financial support that was not often forthcoming. Under the Articles of Confederation , Congress had no power to collect taxes or to demand money from
1843-531: Is entitled to at least one representative. An Act apportioning Representatives among the several States, according to the first enumeration. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That from and after the third day of March one thousand seven hundred and ninety-three, the House of Representatives shall be composed of members elected agreeably to
1940-555: Is originally published as a slip law , which is classified as either public law (abbreviated Pub.L.) or private law (Pvt.L.), and designated and numbered accordingly. At the end of a congressional session, the statutes enacted during that session are compiled into bound books, known as "session law" publications. The United States Statutes at Large is the name of the session law publication for U.S. Federal statutes. The public laws and private laws are numbered and organized in chronological order. U.S. Federal statutes are published in
2037-654: The American revolutionary cause , though an anonymous one. He then served as an artillery officer in the American Revolutionary War , where he saw military action against the British in the New York and New Jersey campaign , served for years as an aide to General George Washington , and helped secure American victory at the climactic Siege of Yorktown . After the Revolutionary War, Hamilton served as
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#17327648334652134-525: The Battle of Harlem Heights shortly after, and at the Battle of White Plains a month later. At the Battle of Trenton , the company was stationed at the high point of Trenton at the intersection of present-day Warren and Broad streets to keep the Hessians pinned in their Trenton barracks. Hamilton participated in the Battle of Princeton on January 3, 1777. After an initial setback, Washington rallied
2231-647: The Constitution , amendments to the Constitution , treaties with Native American nations and foreign nations, and presidential proclamations . Sometimes very large or long Acts of Congress are published as their own "appendix" volume of the Statutes at Large . For example, the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 was published as volume 68A of the Statutes at Large (68A Stat. 3 ). Alexander Hamilton Alexander Hamilton (January 11, 1755 or 1757 – July 12, 1804)
2328-628: The Haitian Revolution , and Hamilton helped draft the constitution of Haiti . After resigning as Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton resumed his legal and business activities. He was a leader in the abolition of the international slave trade . In the Quasi-War , Hamilton called for mobilization against France , and President John Adams appointed him major general. The army , however, did not see combat. Outraged by Adams' response to
2425-636: The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA). Until 1948, all treaties and international agreements approved by the United States Senate were also published in the set, but these now appear in a publication titled United States Treaties and Other International Agreements , abbreviated U.S.T. In addition, the Statutes at Large includes the text of the Declaration of Independence , Articles of Confederation ,
2522-464: The Revolutionary cause before the war began, although he did not approve of mob reprisals against Loyalists . On May 10, 1775, Hamilton won credit for saving his college's president, Loyalist Myles Cooper , from an angry mob by speaking to the crowd long enough to allow Cooper to escape. Hamilton was forced to discontinue his studies before graduating when the college closed its doors during
2619-657: The 1830 census. After discarding the remainders, the average population of congressional districts was 34,436 persons. An earlier apportionment bill had been approved by the House in February 1792 and the Senate in March 1792, but was vetoed by the President on April 5, 1792. It was the first presidential veto of legislation in American history (and the history of modern democracies). The United States Constitution provided
2716-569: The 1st and 2nd New York Regiments and two provisional companies from Connecticut. In the planning for the assault on Yorktown , Hamilton was given command of three battalions , which were to fight in conjunction with the allied French troops in taking Redoubts No. 9 and No. 10 of the British fortifications at Yorktown. Hamilton and his battalions took Redoubt No. 10 with bayonets in a nighttime action, as planned. The French also suffered heavy casualties and took Redoubt No. 9. These actions forced
2813-504: The Articles had been proposed by Thomas Burke , in February 1781, to give Congress the power to collect a five percent impost, or duty on all imports, but this required ratification by all states; securing its passage as law proved impossible after it was rejected by Rhode Island in November 1782. James Madison joined Hamilton in influencing Congress to send a delegation to persuade Rhode Island to change its mind. Their report recommending
2910-564: The British occupation of New York City. In 1775, after the first engagement of American patriot troops with the British at Lexington and Concord , Hamilton and other King's College students joined a New York volunteer militia company called the Corsicans , whose name reflected the Corsican Republic that was suppressed six years earlier and young American patriots regarded as a model to be emulated. Hamilton drilled with
3007-524: The British surrender of an entire army at Yorktown, marking the de facto end of the war, although small battles continued for two more years until the signing of the Treaty of Paris and the departure of the last British troops. After Yorktown, Hamilton returned to New York City and resigned his commission in March 1782. He passed the bar in July after six months of self-directed education and, in October,
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3104-405: The Confederation. In response, the war veterans sold the securities to speculators for as little as fifteen to twenty cents on the dollar. Hamilton felt the money from the bonds should not go to the soldiers who had shown little faith in the country's future, but the speculators that had bought the bonds from the soldiers. The process of attempting to track down the original bondholders along with
3201-532: The Continental Army troops and led them in a successful charge against the British forces. After making a brief stand, the British fell back, some leaving Princeton , and others taking up refuge in Nassau Hall . Hamilton transported three cannons to the hall, and had them fire upon the building as others rushed the front door and broke it down. The British subsequently put a white flag outside one of
3298-522: The Hamilton brothers were subsequently separated. James Jr. apprenticed with a local carpenter, while Alexander was given a home by Thomas Stevens, a merchant from Nevis. Hamilton became a clerk at Beekman and Cruger, a local import-export firm that traded with the Province of New York and New England . Despite being only a teenager, Hamilton proved capable enough as a trader to be left in charge of
3395-614: The Irish-born Hercules Mulligan , brother of a trader known to Hamilton's benefactors, who assisted Hamilton in selling cargo that was used to pay for his education and support. Later that year, in preparation for college, Hamilton began to fill gaps in his education at the Elizabethtown Academy , a preparatory school run by Francis Barber in Elizabeth, New Jersey . While there, he came under
3492-514: The Measures of Congress and The Farmer Refuted . Seabury essentially tried to provoke fear in the colonies with an objective of preventing the colonies from uniting against the British. Hamilton published two additional pieces attacking the Quebec Act , and may have also authored the 15 anonymous installments of "The Monitor" for Holt's New York Journal . Hamilton was a supporter of
3589-547: The New York delegation, Lansing and Yates, had already withdrawn, Hamilton was the only New York signer to the United States Constitution. He then took a highly active part in the successful campaign for the document's ratification in New York in 1788, which was a crucial step in its national ratification. He first used the popularity of the Constitution by the masses to compel George Clinton to sign, but
3686-619: The Rhode Island negotiations. While Hamilton was in Congress, discontented soldiers began to pose a danger to the young United States. Most of the army was then posted at Newburgh, New York . Those in the army were funding much of their own supplies, and they had not been paid in eight months. Furthermore, after Valley Forge , the Continental officers had been promised in May 1778 a pension of half their pay when they were discharged. By
3783-533: The Senate, as well as covering military matters and taxation. The papers first appeared in The Independent Journal on October 27, 1787. Hamilton wrote the first paper signed as Publius , and all of the subsequent papers were signed under the name. Jay wrote the next four papers to elaborate on the confederation's weakness and the need for unity against foreign aggression and against splitting into rival confederacies, and, except for No. 64 ,
3880-488: The State of Vermont , against numerous objections to its constitutionality and policy. Consideration of the bill was deferred to a later date. From 1787 to 1789, Hamilton exchanged letters with Nathaniel Chipman , a lawyer representing Vermont. After the Constitution of the United States went into effect, Hamilton said, "One of the first subjects of deliberation with the new Congress will be the independence of Kentucky, for which
3977-534: The United States Code have been enacted as positive law and other portions have not been so enacted. In case of a conflict between the text of the Statutes at Large and the text of a provision of the United States Code that has not been enacted as positive law, the text of the Statutes at Large takes precedence. Publication of the United States Statutes at Large began in 1845 by the private firm of Little, Brown and Company under authority of
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4074-513: The adjournment of the House in September 1789, they requested Hamilton to make a report on suggestions to improve the public credit by January 1790. Hamilton had written to Morris as early as 1781, that fixing the public credit will win their objective of independence. The sources that Hamilton used ranged from Frenchmen such as Jacques Necker and Montesquieu to British writers such as Hume , Hobbes , and Malachy Postlethwayt . While writing
4171-431: The aggregate number of all the people of the United States, or on the aggregate numbers of the people of each state." As the constitutionality of the bill was, Knox said, "only doubted not proved but the equity of the measure apparent, it would appear rather a delicate measure for the President to decide the question contrary to the bill as passed." Hamilton wrote Washington on the following day that, while he had not yet read
4268-409: The army were not satisfied. Hamilton wrote Washington to suggest that Hamilton covertly "take direction" of the officers' efforts to secure redress, to secure continental funding but keep the army within the limits of moderation. Washington wrote Hamilton back, declining to introduce the army. After the crisis had ended, Washington warned of the dangers of using the army as leverage to gain support for
4365-531: The bill "allotted to eight of the States more than one for every thirty thousand" as delimited by Article I Section II of the United States Constitution . The next day, the House attempted to override the President's veto but failed to reach the two thirds vote required and on April 10 efforts began to revise the bill a third time. On March 26, the bill was presented to the President. There
4462-485: The bill should be signed into law. After considering both sides of the argument, Washington decided that Jefferson and Randolph were correct, and Washington agreed that the bill was unconstitutional. Even so, Washington feared that by vetoing it he would increase geographical tensions by siding with the south, as Jefferson and Randolph were both from Virginia. Further discussion with Randolph, Jefferson, and James Madison, however, allayed Washington's concerns, and on April 5,
4559-406: The bill, it seemed to him that the bill "performs every requisition of the constitution; and it will not be denied that it performs this in the manner most consistent with equality." Like Knox, Hamilton believed that "In cases where two constructions may reasonably be adopted, and neither can be pronounced inconsistent with the public good, it seems proper that the legislative sense should prevail" and
4656-399: The choice of a common divisor and the division of the population residing in each state by that number to establish the size of the United States House of Representatives . Also, the fact that the allocating method invented by Hamilton , which the bill was using, gave an additional member to the eight states with the largest fraction left over after dividing by 30,000 was called "repugnant to
4753-629: The college and placing it on firm financial footing. In 1787, Hamilton served as assemblyman from New York County in the New York State Legislature and was chosen as a delegate at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia by his father-in-law Philip Schuyler . Even though Hamilton had been a leader in calling for a new Constitutional Convention, his direct influence at the Convention itself
4850-516: The company before classes in the graveyard of nearby St. Paul's Chapel . He studied military history and tactics on his own and was soon recommended for promotion. Under fire from HMS Asia , and with support from Hercules Mulligan and the Sons of Liberty , he led his newly renamed unit the "Hearts of Oak" on a successful raid for British cannons in the Battery . The seizure of the cannons resulted in
4947-411: The constitution (No. 23–36), and discussed the Senate and executive and judicial branches (No. 65–85). Hamilton and Madison worked to describe the anarchic state of the confederation (No. 15–22), and the two have been described as not being significantly different in thought during this time period—in contrast to their stark opposition later in life. Subtle differences appeared with the two when discussing
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#17327648334655044-472: The convention, Hamilton made a speech proposing a president-for-life; it had no effect upon the deliberations of the convention. He proposed to have an elected president and elected senators who would serve for life, contingent upon "good behavior" and subject to removal for corruption or abuse; this idea contributed later to the hostile view of Hamilton as a monarchist sympathizer, held by James Madison. According to Madison's notes, Hamilton said in regards to
5141-485: The crisis without establishing general taxation: that the states assume the debt to the army, or that an impost be established dedicated to the sole purpose of paying that debt. Hamilton suggested using the Army's claims to prevail upon the states for the proposed national funding system. The Morrises and Hamilton contacted General Henry Knox to suggest he and the officers defy civil authority, at least by not disbanding if
5238-403: The crisis, Hamilton opposed his reelection campaign . Jefferson and Aaron Burr tied for the presidency in the electoral college and, despite philosophical differences, Hamilton endorsed Jefferson over Burr, whom he found unprincipled. When Burr ran for governor of New York in 1804 , Hamilton again campaigned against him, arguing that he was unworthy. Taking offense, Burr challenged Hamilton to
5335-403: The delegation argued the national government needed not just some level of financial autonomy, but also the ability to make laws that superseded those of the individual states. Hamilton transmitted a letter arguing that Congress already had the power to tax, since it had the power to fix the sums due from the several states; but Virginia's rescission of its own ratification of this amendment ended
5432-488: The early 1780s, due to the structure of the government under the Articles of Confederation, it had no power to tax to either raise revenue or pay its soldiers. In 1782, after several months without pay, a group of officers organized to send a delegation to lobby Congress, led by Captain Alexander McDougall. The officers had three demands: the army's pay, their own pensions, and commutation of those pensions into
5529-409: The executive, "The English model was the only good one on this subject. The hereditary interest of the king was so interwoven with that of the nation, and his personal emoluments so great, that he was placed above the danger of being corrupted from abroad... Let one executive be appointed for life who dares execute his powers." Hamilton argued, "And let me observe that an executive is less dangerous to
5626-406: The financial risk of buying government bonds that most experts thought would never be redeemed. He argued that liberty and property security were inseparable, and that the government should honor the contracts, as they formed the basis of public and private morality. To Hamilton, the proper handling of the government debt would also allow America to borrow at affordable interest rates and would also be
5723-540: The firm for five months in 1771 while the owner was at sea. He remained an avid reader, and later developed an interest in writing and a life outside Saint Croix. He wrote a detailed letter to his father regarding a hurricane that devastated Christiansted on August 30, 1772. The Presbyterian Reverend Hugh Knox, a tutor and mentor to Hamilton, submitted the letter for publication in the Royal Danish-American Gazette. Biographer Ron Chernow found
5820-468: The first U.S. Secretary of the Treasury . He envisioned a central government led by an energetic president, a strong national defense, and an industrial economy. He successfully argued that the implied powers of the Constitution provided the legal authority to fund the national debt , assume the states' debts, and create the First Bank of the United States , which was funded by a tariff on imports and
5917-407: The first apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives and stipulated that a Census (“enumeration”) of the population of the states must be made within three years of the first meeting of Congress. That first Census took place in 1790. Article I, Section 2, Clause 3 of the Constitution stipulates that the apportionment of seats is to be effected on the basis of population, and that each state
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#17327648334656014-699: The foundation for American government and finance. British historian Paul Johnson stated that Hamilton was a "genius—the only one of the Founding Fathers fully entitled to that accolade—and he had the elusive, indefinable characteristics of genius." Hamilton was born and spent the early part of his childhood in Charlestown, the capital of Nevis in the British Leeward Islands . Hamilton and his older brother, James Jr., were born out of wedlock to Rachel Lavien ( née Faucette),
6111-553: The future Constitution of the United States, including a strong federal government with the ability to collect taxes and raise an army. It also included the separation of powers into the legislative , executive , and judicial branches. Hamilton resigned from Congress in 1783. When the British left New York in 1783 , he practiced there in partnership with Richard Harison . He specialized in defending Tories and British subjects, as in Rutgers v. Waddington , in which he defeated
6208-636: The ideas of revolution and liberty. During the convention, Hamilton constructed a draft for the Constitution based on the convention debates, but he never presented it. This draft had most of the features of the actual Constitution. In this draft, the Senate was to be elected in proportion to the population, being two-fifths the size of the House, and the president and senators were to be elected through complex multistage elections, in which chosen electors would elect smaller bodies of electors; they would hold office for life, but were removable for misconduct. The president would have an absolute veto. The Supreme Court
6305-506: The impression that New York would not be accepted into the Union. During the state convention, New Hampshire and Virginia becoming the ninth and tenth states to ratify the Constitution, respectively, had ensured any adjournment would not happen and a compromise would have to be reached. Hamilton's arguments used for the ratifications were largely iterations of work from The Federalist Papers , and Smith eventually went for ratification, though it
6402-530: The influence of William Livingston , a local leading intellectual and revolutionary with whom he lived for a time. Hamilton entered Mulligan's alma mater King's College , now Columbia University , in New York City, in the autumn of 1773 as a private student, while again boarding with Mulligan until officially matriculating in May 1774. His college roommate and lifelong friend Robert Troup spoke glowingly of Hamilton's clarity in concisely explaining
6499-673: The letter astounding because "for all its bombastic excesses, it does seem wondrous [that a] self-educated clerk could write with such verve and gusto" and that a teenage boy produced an apocalyptic "fire-and-brimstone sermon" viewing the hurricane as a "divine rebuke to human vanity and pomposity." The essay impressed community leaders, who collected a fund to send Hamilton to the North American colonies for his education. In October 1772, Hamilton arrived by ship in Boston and proceeded from there to New York City, where he took lodgings with
6596-462: The liberties of the people when in office during life than for seven years. It may be said this constitutes as an elective monarchy ... But by making the executive subject to impeachment, the term 'monarchy' cannot apply ..." In his notes of the convention, Madison interpreted Hamilton's proposal as claiming power for the "rich and well born". Madison's perspective all but isolated Hamilton from his fellow delegates and others who felt they did not reflect
6693-546: The men. Jackson was unsuccessful. The mob arrived in Philadelphia, and the soldiers proceeded to harangue Congress for their pay. Hamilton argued that Congress ought to adjourn to Princeton, New Jersey . Congress agreed, and relocated there. Frustrated with the weakness of the central government, Hamilton while in Princeton, drafted a call to revise the Articles of Confederation. This resolution contained many features of
6790-707: The national funding plan. On March 15, Washington defused the Newburgh situation by addressing the officers personally. Congress ordered the Army officially disbanded in April 1783. In the same month, Congress passed a new measure for a 25-year impost—which Hamilton voted against —that again required the consent of all the states; it also approved a commutation of the officers' pensions to five years of full pay. Rhode Island again opposed these provisions, and Hamilton's robust assertions of national prerogatives in his previous letter were widely held to be excessive. In June 1783,
6887-408: The necessity of standing armies. In 1789, Washington—who had become the first president of the United States —appointed Hamilton to be his cabinet's Secretary of the Treasury on the advice of Robert Morris , Washington's initial pick. On September 11, 1789, Hamilton was nominated and confirmed in the Senate and sworn in the same day as the first United States Secretary of the Treasury . Before
6984-420: The participants, wrote the majority of the essays, and oversaw the publication. During the project, each person was responsible for their areas of expertise. Jay covered foreign relations. Madison covered the history of republics and confederacies, along with the anatomy of the new government. Hamilton covered the branches of government most pertinent to him: the executive and judicial branches, with some aspects of
7081-647: The patriots' case against the British in what is credited as Hamilton's first public appearance on July 6, 1773. As King's College students, Hamilton, Troup, and four other undergraduates formed an unnamed literary society that is regarded as a precursor of the Philolexian Society . In 1774, Church of England clergyman Samuel Seabury published a series of pamphlets promoting the Loyalist cause and Hamilton responded anonymously to it, with his first published political writings, A Full Vindication of
7178-533: The population enumeration provided by the 1790 Census . The final apportionment, which was not part of the Act itself, was on the basis of "the ratio of one for every thirty-three thousand persons in the respective States" , and used the Jefferson method which required fractional remainders to be ignored when calculating each state's total number of representatives. This apportionment method continued to be used until
7275-609: The president decided to return the bill to the House of Representatives with the two objections that "there is no one proportion or divisor which, applied to the respective numbers of the States will yield the number and allotment of representatives proposed by the Bill" and that "the Bill has allotted to eight of the States, more than one [representative] for thirty thousand." After receiving Washington's veto message, Congress decided on April 10, 1792, to apportion representatives at "the ratio of one for every thirty-three thousand persons in
7372-708: The rank of lieutenant colonel . Washington believed that "Aides de camp are persons in whom entire confidence must be placed and it requires men of abilities to execute the duties with propriety and dispatch." Hamilton served four years as Washington's chief staff aide. He handled letters to the Continental Congress , state governors, and the most powerful generals of the Continental Army . He drafted many of Washington's orders and letters under Washington's direction, and he eventually issued orders on Washington's behalf over his own signature. Hamilton
7469-437: The report he also sought out suggestions from contemporaries such as John Witherspoon and Madison. Although they agreed on additional taxes such as distilleries and duties on imported liquors and land taxes, Madison feared that the securities from the government debt would fall into foreign hands. In the report, Hamilton felt that the securities should be paid at full value to their legitimate owners, including those who took
7566-453: The respective States" . Washington signed the revised bill into law on April 14, 1792. United States Statutes at Large The United States Statutes at Large , commonly referred to as the Statutes at Large and abbreviated Stat. , are an official record of Acts of Congress and concurrent resolutions passed by the United States Congress . Each act and resolution of Congress
7663-469: The southern states will be anxious. The northern will be glad to send a counterpoise in Vermont." Vermont was admitted to the Union in 1791. In 1788, he was awarded a Master of Arts degree from his alma mater , the former King's College, now reconstituted as Columbia College. It was during this post-war period that Hamilton served on the college's board of trustees , playing a part in the reopening of
7760-408: The spirit of the constitution" by Randolph. Jefferson urged that Washington veto it because it was unconstitutional and introduced principles that were liable to be abused in the future. Contrary to Jefferson and Randolph, both Knox and Hamilton urged that he approve the bill. Knox argued on April 3 that the Constitution was unclear about "whether the numbers of representatives shall be apportioned on
7857-432: The state of New Jersey, five; within the state of Pennsylvania, thirteen; within the state of Delaware, one; within the state of Maryland, eight; within the state of Virginia, nineteen; within the state of Kentucky, two; within the state of North Carolina, ten; within the state of South Carolina, six; and within the state of Georgia, two members. APPROVED, April 14, 1792. An earlier apportionment bill
7954-465: The states. This lack of a stable source of funding had made it difficult for the Continental Army both to obtain its necessary provisions and to pay its soldiers. During the war, and for some time after, Congress obtained what funds it could from subsidies from the King of France, European loans, and aid requested from the several states, which were often unable or unwilling to contribute. An amendment to
8051-505: The unit being re-designated an artillery company. Through his connections with influential New York patriots, including Alexander McDougall and John Jay , Hamilton raised the New York Provincial Company of Artillery of 60 men in 1776, and was elected captain . The company took part in the campaign of 1776 in and around New York City; as rearguard of the Continental Army's retreat up Manhattan, serving at
8148-461: The war drew nearer to an end, he knew that opportunities for military glory were diminishing. On February 15, 1781, Hamilton was reprimanded by Washington after a minor misunderstanding. Although Washington quickly tried to mend their relationship, Hamilton insisted on leaving his staff. He officially left in March, and settled with his new wife Elizabeth Schuyler close to Washington's headquarters. He continued to repeatedly ask Washington and others for
8245-718: The windows; 194 British soldiers walked out of the building and laid down their arms, ending the battle in an American victory. While being stationed in Morristown, New Jersey , from December 1779 to March 1780, Hamilton met Elizabeth Schuyler , a daughter of General Philip Schuyler and Catherine Van Rensselaer . They married on December 14, 1780, at the Schuyler Mansion in Albany, New York . They had eight children, Philip , Angelica , Alexander , James , John , William , Eliza , and another Philip . Hamilton
8342-407: Was vetoed by President George Washington on April 5, 1792, as unconstitutional, marking the first use of the U.S. President's veto power. Washington made two objections in a letter to the House describing the reason for his veto. The first objection made in the letter was that the bill did not have a uniform ratio to reach the numbers of representatives to population set forth in the bill. Secondly,
8439-561: Was an American military officer, statesman, and Founding Father who served as the first U.S. secretary of the treasury from 1789 to 1795 during George Washington's presidency . Born out of wedlock in Charlestown, Nevis , Hamilton was orphaned as a child and taken in by a prosperous merchant. He pursued his education in New York City where, despite his young age, he was a prolific and widely read pamphleteer advocating for
8536-610: Was enacted July 30, 1947 and directed the Secretary of State to compile, edit, index, and publish the Statutes at Large . Pub. L. 81–821 , 64 Stat. 980, was enacted September 23, 1950 and directed the Administrator of General Services to compile, edit, index, and publish the Statutes at Large . Since 1985 the Statutes at Large have been prepared and published by the Office of the Federal Register (OFR) of
8633-418: Was great disagreement among Washington's advisors, and therefore he called upon Edmund Randolph, Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton , and Henry Knox to give him their opinions of the bill. Randolph and Jefferson both said, as the bill established the total number of representatives, 120, by dividing the aggregate of the federal census by 30,000, it was unconstitutional. The Constitution required, they argued,
8730-488: Was invited to become an aide to Continental Army general William Alexander, Lord Stirling , and another general, perhaps Nathanael Greene or Alexander McDougall . He declined these invitations, believing his best chance for improving his station in life was glory on the Revolutionary War 's battlefields. Hamilton eventually received an invitation he felt he could not refuse: to serve as Washington's aide with
8827-549: Was involved in a wide variety of high-level duties, including intelligence , diplomacy , and negotiation with senior army officers as Washington's emissary. During the Revolutionary War, Hamilton became the close friend of several fellow officers. His letters to the Marquis de Lafayette and to John Laurens , employing the sentimental literary conventions of the late 18th century and alluding to Greek history and mythology, have been read by Jonathan Ned Katz as revelatory of
8924-599: Was licensed to argue cases before the Supreme Court of New York . He also accepted an offer from Robert Morris to become receiver of continental taxes for the New York state . Hamilton was appointed in July 1782 to the Congress of the Confederation as a New York representative for the term beginning in November 1782. Before his appointment to Congress in 1782, Hamilton was already sharing his criticisms of Congress. He expressed these criticisms in his letter to James Duane dated September 3, 1780: "The fundamental defect
9021-403: Was more out of necessity than Hamilton's rhetoric. The vote in the state convention was ratified 30 to 27, on July 26, 1788. Hamilton recruited John Jay and James Madison to write The Federalist Papers , a series of essays, to defend the proposed Constitution. He made the largest contribution to that effort, writing 51 of the 85 essays published. Hamilton supervised the entire project, enlisted
9118-450: Was not further involved. Hamilton's highlights included discussion that although republics have been culpable for disorders in the past, advances in the "science of politics" had fostered principles that ensured that those abuses could be prevented, such as the division of powers, legislative checks and balances, an independent judiciary, and legislators that were represented by electors (No. 7–9). Hamilton also wrote an extensive defense of
9215-442: Was quite limited. Governor George Clinton 's faction in the New York legislature had chosen New York's other two delegates, John Lansing Jr. and Robert Yates , and both of them opposed Hamilton's goal of a strong national government. Thus, whenever the other two members of the New York delegation were present, they decided New York's vote, to ensure that there were no major alterations to the Articles of Confederation. Early in
9312-401: Was to have immediate jurisdiction over all lawsuits involving the United States, and state governors were to be appointed by the federal government. At the end of the convention, Hamilton was still not content with the final Constitution, but signed it anyway as a vast improvement over the Articles of Confederation, and urged his fellow delegates to do so also. Since the other two members of
9409-624: Was unsuccessful. The state convention in Poughkeepsie in June 1788 pitted Hamilton, Jay, James Duane , Robert Livingston , and Richard Morris against the Clintonian faction led by Melancton Smith , Lansing, Yates, and Gilbert Livingston . Clinton's faction wanted to amend the Constitution, while maintaining the state's right to secede if their attempts failed, and members of Hamilton's faction were against any conditional ratification, under
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