Misplaced Pages

#475524

130-403: The founder of applied psychology was Hugo Münsterberg . He came to America (Harvard) from Germany (Berlin, Laboratory of Stern), invited by William James, and, like many aspiring psychologists during the late 19th century, originally studied philosophy. Münsterberg had many interests in the field of psychology such as purposive psychology, social psychology and forensic psychology. Hugo Münsterberg

260-493: A German spy, and many of his more liberal Harvard colleagues disassociated themselves from him. There were also threats against his life. He remained at Harvard as a professor of experimental psychology and director of the Psychological Laboratory until his sudden death in 1916 from an intracerebral hemorrhage in a lecture at Radcliffe College . One major point of disagreement between Wundt and Münsterberg

390-439: A basic-science orientation include biological psychology, cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and so on. Research in these subdisciplines is characterized by methodological rigor. The concern of psychology as a basic science is in understanding the laws and processes that underlie behavior, cognition, and emotion. Psychology as a basic science provides a foundation for applied psychology . Applied psychology, by contrast, involves

520-449: A broader category of applied psychology called criminal psychology. Custody cases are an example of non-criminal evaluations by forensic psychologists. The validity and upholding of eyewitness testimony is an area of forensic psychology that does veer closer to criminal investigations, though does not directly involve the psychologist in the investigation process. Psychologists are often called to testify as expert witnesses on issues such as

650-441: A cellular-metabolic causation and diagnosed based on his behavioristic observations of the subject's reactions to interviews of them by him. Psychotherapy (1909), the book he authored in regard to his investigations of matters of the mind. He defined psychotherapy as "the practice of treating the sick by influencing the mental life... perhaps with drugs and medicines, or with electricity or baths or diet." When trying to understand

780-533: A conscious element of the mind during introspection, while Münsterberg did not. Münsterberg believed that as we prepare to act we consciously experience this bodily preparedness and mistakenly interpret it with the will to act a certain way. Münsterberg's beliefs support his interpretation of James's ideo-motor theory of behavior. For Münsterberg behavior causes ideas. However, for James ideas cause behavior. There are also similarities between James's theory of emotion and Münsterberg's analysis of voluntary behavior. For

910-520: A cultural center. The family had a great love of the arts, and Münsterberg was encouraged to explore music, literature, and art. Both his mother and his father died before he was 20 years old. When Münsterberg was 12, his mother died, transforming him from a care-free child to a much more serious young man. In 1880, his father also died. Münsterberg had many interests in his early years, including art, literature, poetry, foreign languages, music, and acting. Münsterberg's first years of school were spent at

1040-418: A farm full of animals. The concepts and trends learned through environmental psychology can be used when setting up or rearranging spaces so that the space will best perform its intended function. The top common, more well known areas of psychology that drive this applied field include: cognitive, perception, learning, and social psychology. Forensic psychology and legal psychology are the areas concerned with

1170-444: A few other aspects of environments studied by this sub-discipline of psychology. When examining a particular environment, environmental psychology looks at the goals and purposes of the people in the using the environment, and tries to determine how well the environment is suiting the needs of the people using it. For example, a quiet environment is necessary for a classroom of students taking a test, but would not be needed or expected on

1300-488: A higher education, he felt that graduate studies were too difficult and demanding for them. As well, he suggested that women should not be allowed to serve on juries because they were "incapable of rational deliberation". Both Dudley Andrew and James Monaco count Münsterberg's book The Photoplay: A Psychological Study as one of the early examples of film theory. Though he believed in God and life after death , Münsterberg

1430-553: A human and a process interact. Often engineering psychology may be centered on computers. However at the base level, a process is simply a series of inputs and outputs between a human and a machine. The human must have a clear method to input data and be able to easily access the information in output. The inability of rapid and accurate corrections can sometimes lead to drastic consequences, as summed up by many stories in Set Phasers on Stun. The engineering psychologists wants to make

SECTION 10

#1732776437476

1560-567: A large sheet of white cardboard with a certain number of black dots on it spread in an irregular order. He exposed it for the students to view for only five seconds, and then asked them how many black dots that they thought were on the sheet. The results were surprising in that even with "highly trained, careful observers, whose attention was concentrated on the material, and who had full time for quiet scrutiny... there were some who believed that they saw seven or eight times more points than some other saw." He conducted similar experiments that referred to

1690-461: A newer system marked by a movement toward scientific management in commerce and industry. This second newer system started in Boston and is essentially a form of career guidance for children. A member of the community would call a meeting of all the neighborhood boys who were to leave elementary school at the end of the year and discuss with them whether they had any reasonable plans for the future. It

1820-590: A number of different areas or domains. According to Gelso and Fretz (2001), there are some central unifying themes among counseling psychologists. These include a focus on an individual's strengths, relationships, their educational and career development, as well as a focus on normal personalities. Counseling psychologists help people improve their well-being, reduce and manage stress, and improve overall functioning in their lives. The interventions used by Counseling Psychologists may be either brief or long-term in duration. Often they are problem focused and goal-directed. There

1950-447: A number of unique research methods, including observations in natural settings and the engaging of children directly in experimental tasks. Some experimental tasks resemble specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful. Developmental psychologists have even devised methods to study the mental processes of infants. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also study

2080-451: A portion of the book which he calls "The Detection of Crime" he discusses the many factors that can influence testimony, gain confessions, and force a confession from those who are innocent. Münsterberg states that "brutality is still a favorite method of undermining the mental resistance of the accused." He discusses some of the ways that police of the time have of making suspects confess to crimes that they had not committed, including making

2210-464: A preference gives rather a slight final indication of the individual mental qualities. Moreover, such mere inclinations and interests cannot determine the true psychological fitness for a vocation." Münsterberg points out that wandering from one job to another is more common in America and notes that this does have certain advantages including "that a failure in one vocation does not bring with it such

2340-407: A result of their efforts. He also employed reciprocal antagonism which is when you strengthen thoughts opposite of the behavior that is causing the problems. Münsterberg did not believe that psychosis could be treated because he believed that was caused by deterioration of the nervous system . Münsterberg was an admirer of Frederick Winslow Taylor to whom he wrote in 1913: "Our aim is to sketch

2470-453: A serious injury as in Europe, but it contributes much to the greater danger that any one may jump recklessly and without preparation into any vocational stream." Therefore, he sought to find a psychologically scientific way of vocational guidance. He describes how two such systems have come to rise in America that attempt to guide young students as they leave school to their chosen vocation, and

2600-506: A set of procedures intended to form a therapeutic alliance, explore the nature of psychological problems, and encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. The four major perspectives are psychodynamic , cognitive behavioral , existential-humanistic , and systems or family therapy . There has been a growing movement to integrate these various therapeutic approaches, especially with an increased understanding of issues regarding ethnicity, gender, spirituality, and sexual-orientation. With

2730-400: A specific achievement to change the whole life-plan once more. The entire scheme of education gives to the individual little chance to find himself. A mere interest for one or another subject in school is influenced by many accidental circumstances, by the personality of the teacher or the methods of instruction, by suggestions of the surroundings and by home traditions, and accordingly even such

SECTION 20

#1732776437476

2860-464: A subfield in other genres of psychology. Applied Psychology has been used in teaching psychology because it focuses on the scientific findings and how it can be used to transfer that behavior.  Many people who use applied psychology work in the fields of teaching, industrial, clinical, and consulting work areas. The Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology delves deeper into the many subsections that are used in correlation with this field and further explains

2990-509: A worker can exercise and the supportiveness of supervisors. OHP is also concerned with the development and implementation of interventions that can prevent or ameliorate work-related health problems. In addition, OHP research has important implications for the economic success of organizations. Other research areas of concern to OHP include workplace incivility and violence , work-home carryover, unemployment and downsizing, and workplace safety and accident prevention. Two important OHP journals are

3120-662: A world scale with the aim of population control . For example, one strategy towards television programming combines social models in a soap opera with informational messages during advertising time. This strategy successfully increased women's enrollment at family planning clinics in Mexico. The programming—which has been deployed around the world by Population Communications International and the Population Media Center—combines family planning messages with representations of female education and literacy. Sport psychology

3250-489: Is a field of scientific research that uses genetic methods to investigate the nature and origins of individual differences in behavior . Although the name "behavioral genetics" connotes a focus on genetic influences, the field broadly investigates the extent to which genetic and environmental factors influence individual differences, using research designs that allow removal of the confounding of genes and environment. Biological psychology or behavioral neuroscience

3380-420: Is a growing number of psychologists who do have prescribing privileges, in the field of medical psychology . In general, however, when medication is warranted many psychologists will work in cooperation with psychiatrists so that clients get therapeutic needs met. Clinical psychologists may also work as part of a team with other professionals, such as social workers and nutritionists . Environmental psychology

3510-401: Is a guiding philosophy which places a value on individual differences and an emphasis on "prevention, development, and adjustment across the life-span." The use of applied psychology in counseling is one of the most useful when it comes to the treatment of individuals. The use of knowledge from scientific findings are beneficial because there are many different options that can be tested to find

3640-584: Is a relatively new discipline that emerged from the confluence of health psychology, industrial and organizational psychology, and occupational health . OHP has its own journals and professional organizations. The field is concerned with identifying psychosocial characteristics of workplaces that give rise to health-related problems in people who work. These problems can involve physical health (e.g., cardiovascular disease) or mental health (e.g., depression). Examples of psychosocial characteristics of workplaces that OHP has investigated include amount of decision latitude

3770-401: Is a specialization within psychology that seeks to understand psychological/mental factors that affect performance in sports , physical activity and exercise and apply these to enhance individual and team performance. The sport psychology approach differs from the coaches and players perspective. Coaches tend to narrow their focus and energy towards the end-goal. They are concerned with

3900-405: Is an applied discipline within psychology that looks at the relationship between psychological processes and cognitions and the actual behavior of road users. In general, traffic psychologists attempt to apply these principles and research findings, in order to provide solutions to problems such as traffic mobility and congestion, road accidents, speeding. Research psychologists also are involved with

4030-407: Is an interdisciplinary research enterprise that involves cognitive psychologists , cognitive neuroscientists , artificial intelligence , linguists , human–computer interaction , computational neuroscience , logicians and social scientists . Computational models are sometimes used to simulate phenomena of interest. Computational models provide a tool for studying the functional organization of

Applied psychology - Misplaced Pages Continue

4160-708: Is applied primarily through office work and the transportation industry. Psychologists here take into account the physical limitations of the human body and attempt to reduce fatigue and stress by designing products and systems that work within the natural limitations of the human body. From simple things like the size of buttons and design of office chairs to layout of airplane cockpits, human factor psychologists, specializing in ergonomics, attempt to de-stress our everyday lives and sometimes even save them. Human factor psychologists specializing in engineering psychology tend to take on slightly different projects than their ergonomic centered counterparts. These psychologists look at how

4290-407: Is based on mathematical modeling of perceptual, cognitive, and motoric processes. Mathematical psychology contributes to the establishment of law-like rules that pertain to quantifiable stimulus characteristics and quantifiable behavior. Because the quantification of behavior is fundamental to mathematical psychology, measurement is a central topic in mathematical psychology. Mathematical psychology

4420-482: Is because memory, when all things are equal, is easily fallible. Because one's memory is affected by the associations, judgments, and suggestions that penetrate into every one of one's observations and taint our memory and our recollection of events. Less well known but highly prescient, Münsterberg wrote about "Untrue Confessions." Appreciating the intuitive credibility of confession evidence in court, he expressed concern that confessions were fallible and speculated as to

4550-498: Is closely related to psychometric theory . However, psychometricians are largely concerned with individual differences in mostly static, trait-like variables. By contrast, the focal concern of mathematical psychology is process models in such areas as perception and cognition. Mathematical psychology is intimately involved in the modeling of data obtained from experimental paradigms, making it closely related to experimental psychology and cognitive psychology . Neuropsychology involves

4680-405: Is completely unfounded because he believes that "A threefold difficulty exists. In the first place, young people know very little about themselves and their abilities. When the day comes on which they discover their real strong points and their weaknesses, it is often too late. They have usually been drawn into the current of a particular vocation, and have given too much energy to the preparation for

4810-617: Is credited with being one of the first people who has researched the field of applied psychology. He went to the University of Leipzig in Germany and attained his doctorate in Medicine. He opened the second psychology clinic in Germany in 1891 where he has continued his research. In 1907 he wrote several magazine articles concerning legal aspects of testimony, confessions and courtroom procedures, which eventually developed into his book, On

4940-415: Is distinct from clinical psychology , an applied field of psychology that seeks to assess, understand, and treat psychological conditions that are harmful to the individual. However, the field of abnormal psychology provides a backdrop for clinical work. Psychopathology is a term used in abnormal psychology that suggests an underlying pathology. Behavioral genetics , also referred to as behavior genetics,

5070-449: Is inherently susceptible to what he calls "illusions" where a subject's perceptions could be affected by the circumstances, making their memory of the events that transpired or testimony inaccurate. He states that with regularity the testimony between two different individuals in the same circumstances can be radically different, even when neither of whom had the slightest interest in changing the facts as remembered. Münsterberg believes this

5200-411: Is now named after him . Over time Münsterberg's interests turned to the many practical applications of psychological principles, he felt very strongly that psychologists had the responsibility to uncover information that could then be used in real world applications. In fact he was the first to apply psychological principles to the legal field, creating forensic psychology . He wrote several papers on

5330-661: Is particularly concerned with brain injury in attempting to understand normal psychological function. Cognitive neuroscientists often use neuroimaging tools, which can help them to observe which areas of the brain are active during a particular task. Cognitive psychology involves the study of cognition , including mental processes underlying perception , learning , problem solving , reasoning , thinking , memory , attention , language , and emotion . Classical cognitive psychology has developed an information processing model of mental function, and has been informed by functionalism and experimental psychology . Cognitive science

Applied psychology - Misplaced Pages Continue

5460-408: Is responding to the unique challenges of increasingly multicultural classrooms. For example, psychologists can contribute insight about the differences between individualistic and collectivistic cultures. School psychologists are influential within the school system and are frequently consulted to solve problems. Practitioners should be able to provide consultation and collaborate with other members of

5590-479: Is some consensus over an empirically driven theory known as the "Big 5" personality model . Psychophysics is a discipline concerned with the relation between physical stimuli and their subjective correlates, or percepts or sensations. Psychophysics involves a set of methods that can be employed in research on perceptual systems. Modern applications of psychophysics rely heavily on ideal observer analyses and signal detection theory . Social psychology involves

5720-489: Is the psychological study of humans and their interactions with their environments. The types of environments studied are limitless, ranging from homes, offices, classrooms, factories, nature, and so on. However, across these different environments, there are several common themes of study that emerge within each one. Noise level and ambient temperature are clearly present in all environments and often subjects of discussion for environmental psychologists. Crowding and stressors are

5850-425: Is the psychology of teaching. In some colleges, educational psychology courses are called "the psychology of learning and teaching". Educational psychology derives a great deal from basic-science disciplines within psychology including cognitive science and behaviorially-oriented research on learning. Counseling psychology is an applied specialization within psychology, that involves both research and practice in

5980-473: Is the scientific study of the biological bases of behavior and mental processes. Biological psychologists view all behavior as dependent on the nervous system , and study the neural basis for behavior. This is the approach taken in behavioral neuroscience , cognitive neuroscience , and neuropsychology . The goal of neuropsychology is to understand how the structure and function of the brain relate to specific behavioral and psychological processes. Neuropsychology

6110-416: Is the study of how cognitive and psychological processes affect our interaction with tools, machines, and objects in the environment. Many branches of psychology attempt to create models of and understand human behavior. These models are usually based on data collected from experiments. Human Factor psychologists however, take the same data and use it to design or adapt processes and objects that will complement

6240-426: Is to explain psychological traits and processes such as memory , perception , or language in terms of adaptations that arose in the evolutionary history of humans. Traits and processes are thought to be functional products of random mutations and natural selection . Evolutionary biologists view physiological mechanisms, such as the heart, lungs, and immune system, in similar terms. Evolutionary psychology applies

6370-448: Is to investigate enduring patterns of behavior , thought , and emotion in individuals. Personality psychologists are especially interested in individual differences. Within the framework of personality psychology, trait theorists attempt to analyze personality in terms of a limited number of key psychological traits. This type of research is highly dependent on statistical methods. The number of proposed traits has varied; however, there

6500-666: The Journal of Occupational Health Psychology and Work & Stress . Three important organizations closely associated with OHP are the International Commission on Occupational Health 's Scientific Committee on Work Organisation and Psychosocial Factors (ICOH-WOPS), the Society for Occupational Health Psychology , and the European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology . Human factors and ergonomics

6630-1081: The American Philosophical Association of which he also became president (1908), the Washington Academy , and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . He was the organizer and vice-president of the International Congress of Arts and Sciences at the Saint Louis World's Fair of 1904, vice-president of the International Psychological Congress in Paris in 1900, and vice-president of the International Philosophical Congress at Heidelberg in 1907. In 1910–1911, he

SECTION 50

#1732776437476

6760-514: The Gymnasium of Danzig from which he graduated in 1882. He entered the University of Leipzig in 1883 where he heard a lecture by Wilhelm Wundt and became interested in psychology . Münsterberg eventually became Wundt's research assistant. He received his PhD in physiological psychology in 1885 under Wundt's supervision at the age of 22. In 1887, Münsterberg received his medical degree at

6890-443: The University of Heidelberg . He also wrote a third thesis there and met the university's other criteria for habilitation enabling him to lecture as a privatdocent . While at Freiburg he started a psychology laboratory and began publishing papers on a number of topics including attentional processes, memory, learning, and perception. In the same year he married a distant cousin, Selma Oppler of Strassburg , on August 7. In 1889, he

7020-684: The American Psychological Association is known to file amicus curae briefs, as applications of psychological knowledge to high-profile court cases. A related field, police psychology , involves consultation with police departments and participation in police training. Health psychology concerns itself with understanding how biology, behavior, and social context influence health and illness. Health psychologists generally work alongside other medical professionals in clinical settings, although many also teach and conduct research. Although its early beginnings can be traced to

7150-562: The Germans and Americans. He wrote many books and articles attempting to correct them including The Americans (1904). In American Problems (1910), however, he was highly critical of Americans and said that they had the "general inability to concentrate their attention on any one thing for very long." As the war approached, Münsterberg's support of the supposed efficiency and modernity of the German autocracy caused him to be suspected of being

7280-624: The James-Lange theory of emotion, "emotions are by-products of bodily reactions elicited by a situation." Whereas for Münsterberg "the feeling of willful actions results from an awareness of covert behavior, or a readiness to act overtly, elicited by a situation." In both cases, conscious experience is the result of behavior. In 1900 he published the Basics of Psychology which he dedicated to James. Later Münsterberg became unhappy with James's liberal attitude towards philosophy and psychology. He

7410-807: The Russian Empire, the French Third Republic, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland) and their friends, but to the pro-Germans, he appeared almost an idol. While supporting German policies, Münsterberg denounced many of the activities of the Teutonic hyphenates in the United States. Fearing a patriotic response to overt support of the German Empire would undermine his own more covert approach, he condemned

7540-614: The Spiritualists" in his book American Problems from the Point of View of a Psychologist (1910). Author Daniel Cohen noted that "[Palladino] was undaunted by Münsterberg's exposure. Her tricks had been exposed many times before, yet she had prospered." The exposure was not taken seriously by Palladino's defenders. It was heavily criticized by Hereward Carrington and Théodore Flournoy . On 18 December 1909, in New York, with

7670-546: The United States. However, because he could not obtain an academic position that he wanted, he wrote James and requested his old position back so that he could return to Harvard, which he did in 1897. . However, he never could separate himself from his homeland. While at Harvard, Münsterberg's career was going very well. He was affiliated with many organizations including the American Psychological Association of which he became president (1898),

7800-470: The Witness Stand (1908), which is a collection of magazine articles previously published by him where he discusses the many different psychological factors that can change a trial's outcome and pointed the way for rational and scientific means for probing the facts claimed by human witnesses by the application of experimental psychology to the administration of law. He is also credited with being among

7930-717: The Witness Stand . The following year the Division of Applied Psychology was adjoined to the Harvard Psychological Laboratory. Within 9 years he had contributed eight books in English, applying psychology to education, industrial efficiency, business and teaching. Eventually Hugo Münsterberg and his contributions would define him as the creator of applied psychology. In 1920, the International Association of Applied Psychology (IAAP)

SECTION 60

#1732776437476

8060-438: The academy. Since 1970, the number of college graduates with degrees in psychology has more than doubled, from 33,679 to 76,671 in 2002. The annual numbers of masters' and PhD degrees have also increased dramatically over the same period. All the while, degrees in the related fields of economics, sociology, and political science have remained constant. Professional organizations have organized special events and meetings to promote

8190-508: The accuracy of memory, the reliability of police interrogation, and the appropriate course of action in child custody cases. Legal psychology refers to any application of psychological principles, methods or understanding to legal questions or issues. In addition to the applied practices, legal psychology also includes academic or empirical research on topics involving the relationship of law to human mental processes and behavior. However, inherent differences that arise when placing psychology in

8320-407: The actions that lead to the win, as opposed to the sport psychologist who tries to focus the players thoughts on just achieving the win. Sport psychology trains players mentally to prepare them, whereas coaches tend to focus mostly on physical training. Sport psychology deals with increasing performance by managing emotions and minimizing the psychological effects of injury and poor performance. Some of

8450-419: The advent of more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is growing evidence that most of the major therapies are about of equal effectiveness, with the key common element being a strong therapeutic alliance. Because of this, more training programs and psychologists are now adopting an eclectic therapeutic orientation . Clinical psychologists do not usually prescribe medication, although there

8580-463: The application of psychological principles and theories yielded up by the basic psychological sciences; these applications are aimed at overcoming problems or promoting well-being in areas such as mental and physical health and education. Abnormal psychology is the branch of psychology devoted to the study unusual patterns of behavior , emotion , and thought , including that which can be understood to represent mental disorder . Abnormal psychology

8710-408: The application of psychological information in legal situations. The main objective in most of these articles was eyewitness testimony which examined the viability of said witness testimony. He also applied psychological principles to the field of clinical psychology attempting to help those who are ill through a variety of different treatments. In 1908, Münsterberg published his controversial book On

8840-404: The application of psychological methods and principles to legal questions and issues. Most typically, forensic psychology involves a clinical analysis of a particular individual and an assessment of some specific psycho-legal question. The psycho-legal question does not have to be criminal in nature. Forensic psychologists rarely get involved in the actual criminal investigations, which falls under

8970-466: The best possible job for every individual. Münsterberg also explored under what psychological conditions that an employer can secure the most and highest quality output of work from every employee by looking at the effects of changing the work space environment, what can possibly effect workers production, problems of monotony in factory and other vocations that involve tedious repeated tasks and how to avoid these situation, studied attention and fatigue in

9100-423: The best possible work, and how to secure the best possible effects." To Münsterberg the most pressing question was the "selection of those personalities which by their mental qualities are especially fit for a particular kind of economic work." Basically fitting the person with the correct skill set with the correct position to maximize their productivity, and to select those that have "fit personalities and reject

9230-547: The best way to increase motivation, performance, and retention, methods of increasing work efficiency, and marketing and advertising techniques. His paper "Psychology and the Market" (1909) suggested that psychology could be used in many different industrial applications including management, vocational decisions, advertising, job performance and employee motivation. In Psychology and Industrial Efficiency (1913) Münsterberg addressed many different topics that are very important to

9360-420: The causes of abnormal behavior, he saw many mentally ill people. Because he was seeing them for scientific reasons, he chose not to charge them for his services and attempted to understand the causes of abnormal behavior. His treatment, which he applied mainly to cases of alcoholism, drug addiction, phobia, and sexual dysfunction, was basically instilling in his patients the idea that they could expect to improve as

9490-528: The classification, training, and performance of soldiers. School psychology is a field that applies principles of clinical psychology and educational psychology to the diagnosis and treatment of students' behavioral and learning problems. School psychologists are educated in child and adolescent development , learning theories, psychological and psycho-educational assessment , personality theories , therapeutic interventions, special education, psychology, consultation, child and adolescent psychopathology, and

9620-423: The clinical management of patients with brain injury —this area is known as clinical neuropsychology . In many countries clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession . The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be done inside various therapy models, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and client—usually an individual, couple, family, or small group—that employs

9750-489: The current field of industrial psychology. His objective was "to sketch the outlines of a new science which is to intermediate between the modern laboratory psychology and the problems of economics: the psychological experiment is systematically to be placed at the service of commerce and industry." He selects three points of view that he believes are of particular importance to industrial psychology and seeks to answer those questions. These three questions include "how we can find

9880-441: The demands of the torturers." For years his groundbreaking work was not given the recognition it deserved in forensic psychology and other fields but more recent scholarship highlights his substantial contribution to these fields. Münsterberg was grounded on the theory of psychophysical parallelism which argued that all physical processes had a parallel brain process. He believed that certain mental (neurological) illnesses have

10010-506: The demands of the vocation and what opportunities could be found within that vocation. Second, that the schools would have to be interested in the question of vocational choice so that observations of an individual child could be made about their abilities and interests. And finally, what he believed to be the most important point, "the methods had to be elaborated in such a way that the personal traits and dispositions might be discovered with much greater exactitude and with much richer detail than

10140-506: The differences, Industrial psychology focuses more on the Human Resources aspects of the field, and Organizational psychology focuses more on the personal interactions of the employees. When applying these principles however, they are not easily broken apart. For example, when developing requirements for a new job position, the recruiters are looking for an applicant with strong communication skills in multiple areas. The developing of

10270-438: The discussion in the most popular form possible before the wider tribunal of the general reader" cementing his position that while the lawyer, judge, and the jurymen are confident in their abilities, that with the use of experimental psychology he can show just how flawed their thinking can really be. Münsterberg points out the various reasons why eyewitness testimony is inherently unreliable. He describes how eyewitness testimony

10400-486: The education and the motivation of road users. Hugo M%C3%BCnsterberg Hugo Münsterberg ( / ˈ m ʊ n s t ər b ɜːr ɡ / ; German: [ˈmʏnstɐbɛʁk] ; June 1, 1863 – December 16, 1916) was a German-American psychologist . He was one of the pioneers in applied psychology , extending his research and theories to industrial/organizational (I/O), legal, medical, clinical, educational and business settings. Münsterberg experienced immense turmoil with

10530-454: The educational community and confidently make decisions based on empirical research. Psychologists have been employed to promote "green" behavior, i.e. sustainable development . In this case, their goal is behavior modification , through strategies such as social marketing . Tactics include education, disseminating information, organizing social movements, passing laws, and altering taxes to influence decisions. Psychology has been applied on

10660-540: The ethical, legal and administrative codes of their profession. According to Division 16 (Division of School Psychology) of the American Psychological Association (APA), school psychologists operate according to a scientific framework. They work to promote effectiveness and efficiency in the field. School psychologists conduct psychological assessments, provide brief interventions, and develop or help develop prevention programs. Additionally, they evaluate services with special focus on developmental processes of children within

10790-520: The first approach—cannot be sufficient for a real, persistent furtherance of economic life and of the masses who seek their vocations." The question of selecting the best possible man for a particular vocation for Münsterberg comes down to making the process very scientific, trying to create tests that limit the subjectivity that is possible through more traditional techniques of introspection, and instead using measurements of one's personality, intelligence and other inherent personality traits to try to find

10920-451: The first to consider jury research . He says "The lawyer alone is obdurate. The lawyer and the judge and the juryman are sure that they do not need the experimental psychologist... They go on thinking that their legal instinct and their common sense supplies them with all that is needed and somewhat more... Just in the line of the law it therefore seems necessary not to rely simply on the technical statements of scholarly treatises, but to carry

11050-420: The forming of an alien party within the United States as "a crime against the spirit of true Americanism" and said that its results would reach far beyond the time of the war. At his death, the general attitude toward Münsterberg had changed, and his death went relatively unnoticed because of his pro-German attitudes and his support of German policies. He tried to talk about the inaccurate stereotypes held by both

11180-403: The help of a hidden man lying under a table, Münsterberg caught Palladino levitating a table with her foot. Some investigators were originally baffled how Palladino could move curtains from a distance when all the doors and windows in the séance room were closed. According to Münsterberg she moved the curtains by releasing a jet of air from a rubber bulb that she had in her hand. Münsterberg

11310-442: The human component of the equation. Rather than humans learning how to use and manipulate a piece of technology, human factors strives to design technology to be inline with the human behavior models designed by general psychology. This could be accounting for physical limitations of humans, as in ergonomics, or designing systems, especially computer systems, that work intuitively with humans, as does engineering psychology. Ergonomics

11440-640: The idea of applied psychology. In 1990, the American Psychological Society held a Behavioral Science Summit and formed the "Human Capital Initiative", spanning schools, workplace productivity, drugs, violence, and community health. The American Psychological Association declared 2000–2010 the Decade of Behavior , with a similarly broad scope. Psychological methods are considered applicable to all aspects of human life and society. There are many uses of applied psychology and can be found as

11570-482: The individual features with unusual tact and acumen. But he himself had no doubt that such a merely impressionistic method could not satisfy the demands." Münsterberg identified three main reasons why this worked: first, because they analyzed the objective relations of the hundreds of different accessible vocations, as well as, the children's economic, hygienic, technical, and social elements that should be examined so that every child could receive valuable information as to

11700-462: The influence of special conditions in the surroundings; but, on the other side, it covers the habitual traits of the personality, the features of the individual temperament and character, of the intelligence and of the ability, of the collected knowledge and of the acquired experience. All variations of will and feeling, of perception and thought, of attention and emotion, of memory and imagination." That in reality having confidence in those prior factors

11830-559: The items of their surroundings. Industrial and organizational psychology, or I-O psychology, focuses on the psychology of work. Relevant topics within I-O psychology include the psychology of recruitment, selecting employees from an applicant pool , training , performance appraisal , job satisfaction , work motivation . work behavior , occupational stress , accident prevention, occupational safety and health , management , retirement planning and unemployment among many other issues related to

11960-418: The kindred field of clinical psychology , four different approaches to health psychology have been defined: clinical, public health, community and critical health psychology. Health psychologists aim to change health behaviors for the dual purpose of helping people stay healthy and helping patients adhere to disease treatment regimens. The focus of health psychologists tend to center on the health crisis facing

12090-442: The legal context. Psychology rarely makes absolute statements. Instead, psychologists traffic in the terms like level of confidence, percentages, and significance. Legal matters, on the other hand, look for absolutes: guilty or not guilty. This makes for a sticky union between psychology and the legal system. Some universities operate dual JD/PhD programs focusing on the intersection of these two areas. The Committee on Legal Issues of

12220-816: The management of mental illness, health rehabilitation and emotional, cognitive, behavioural and substance use disorders. According to Muse and Moore (2012), the medical psychologist's contributions in the areas of psychopharmacology which sets it apart from other of psychotherapy and psychotherapists. Clinical psychology includes the study and application of psychology for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development. Central to its practice are psychological assessment and psychotherapy , although clinical psychologists may also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and administration. Some clinical psychologists may focus on

12350-414: The men whose mental qualities make them best fitted for the work which they have to do; secondly, under what psychological conditions we can secure the greatest and most satisfactory output of work from every man; and finally, how we can produce most completely the influences on human minds which are desired in the interest of business." In other words, we ask how to find "the best possible man, how to produce

12480-469: The mind whereas neuroscience is more concerned with brain activity. Developmental psychology is concerned with the development of the human mind and behavior over the life course. Developmental psychologists seek to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. They may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or moral development. Developmental researchers who study children use

12610-525: The most important skills taught are goal setting, relaxation, visualization, self-talk awareness and control, concentration, using rituals, attribution training, and periodization. The principles and theories may be applied to any human movement or performance tasks (e.g., playing a musical instrument, acting in a play, public speaking, motor skills). Usually, experts recommend that students be trained in both kinesiology (i.e., sport and exercise sciences, physical education ) and counseling . Traffic psychology

12740-632: The outbreak of the First World War . Torn between his loyalty to the United States and his homeland, he often defended Germany's actions, attracting highly contrasting reactions. Hugo Münsterberg was born into a merchant family in Danzig (now Gdansk, Poland), then a port city in West Prussia . Münsterberg's family was Jewish , a heritage with which he felt no connection and would barely ever manifest publicly. His father Moritz (1825–1880),

12870-568: The outlines of a new science, which is to intermediate between the modern laboratory psychology and the problem of economics." Industrial psychology was to be "independent of economic opinions and debatable... interests." Münsterberg's works Vocation and Learning (1912) and Psychology and Industrial Efficiency (1913) are usually considered the beginning of what would later become known as industrial psychology . His books dealt with many topics including hiring workers who had personalities and mental abilities best suited to certain types of vocations as

13000-415: The perception of time, how rapidity is estimated, descriptions of sounds, and other similar experiments with similar results. Based on the results of his experiments, he "warned against the blind confidence in the observations of the average normal man" and concluded that one cannot rely on the accuracy of a normal person's memory. He questioned how one could be sure of the testimony of any given witness. In

13130-699: The position requirements falls under the industrial psychology, human resource type work, and the requirement of communication skills is related to how the employee with interacts with co-workers. As seen here, it is hard to separate task of developing a qualifications list from the types of qualifications on the list. This is parallel to how the I and O are nearly inseparable in practice. Therefore, I-O psychologists are generally rounded in both industrial and organizational psychology though they will have some specialization. Other topics of interest for I-O psychologists include leadership, performance evaluation, training, and much more. Military psychology includes research into

13260-437: The prisoner's life as uncomfortable as possible, to break down his or her energy, and "worst of all giving brutal shocks given with fiendish cruelty to the terrified imagination of the suspect." He states "that the method is ineffective in bringing out the real truth. At all times, innocent men have been accused by the tortured ones, crimes which were never committed have been confessed, infamous lies have been invented, to satisfy

13390-462: The procedures that should be used in each of the respective industries. Business advertisers have long consulted psychologists in assessing what types of messages will most effectively induce a person to buy a particular product. The three main types of psychologists that participate in creating advertisements are cognitive, media, and social psychologists. These psychologists often work together to create advertisements that create an emotional impact on

13520-544: The process of inputs and outputs as intuitive as possible for the user. The goal of research in human factors is to understand the limitations and biases of human mental processes and behavior, and design items and systems that will interact accordingly with the limitations. Some may see human factors as intuitive or a list of dos and don'ts, but in reality, human factor research strives to make sense of large piles of data to bring precise applications to product designs and systems to help people work more naturally, intuitively with

13650-499: The psychological causes of false confessions. Münsterberg conducted many experiments with his normal psychology students in his basic psychology course while at Harvard. He asked them, "without any theoretical introduction, at the beginning of an ordinary lecture, to write down careful answers to a number of questions referring to that which they would see or hear", and urged them "to do it as conscientiously and carefully as possible." The procedure went as follows. First he would show them

13780-608: The relation of aging to mental processes. Experimental psychology represents a methodological approach to psychology rather than a content area subject. Experimental psychology lends itself to a variety of fields within psychology, including neuroscience , developmental psychology , sensation , perception , attention , learning , memory , thinking , and language . There is even an experimental social psychology . Experimental psychologists are researchers who employ experimental methods to help discover processes underlying behavior and cognition. A goal of evolutionary psychology

13910-421: The right treatment. Medical psychology involves the application of a range of psychological principles, theories and findings applied to the effective management of physical and mental disorders to improve the psychological and physical health of the patient. The American Psychological Association defines medical psychology as the branch of psychology that integrates somatic and psychotherapeutic modalities, into

14040-538: The same thinking to psychology. Evolutionary psychologists advance the view that much of human behavior is the cumulative result of psychological adaptations that evolved to solve problems in human ancestral environments. For example, Steven Pinker hypothesized that humans have inherited special mental capacities for acquiring language, making language acquisition nearly automatic, while inheriting no capacity specifically for reading and writing. Mathematical psychology represents an approach to psychological research that

14170-1040: The school system, and other systems, such as families. School psychologists consult with teachers , parents, and school personnel about learning, behavioral, social, and emotional problems. They may teach lessons on parenting skills (like school counselors), learning strategies, and other skills related to school mental health . In addition, they explain test results to parents and students. They provide individual, group, and in some cases family counseling (State Board of Education 2003; National Clearinghouse for Professions in Special Education, n.d.). School psychologists are actively involved in district and school crisis intervention teams. They also supervise graduate students in school psychology. School psychologists in many districts provide professional development to teachers and other school personnel on topics such as positive behavior intervention plans and achievement tests. One salient application for school psychology in today's world

14300-473: The scientific methods that are used to portray violence, humor and sex. Educational psychology is devoted to the study of how humans learn in educational settings, especially schools. Psychologists assess the effects of specific educational interventions: e.g., phonics versus whole language instruction in early reading attainment. They also study the question of why learning occurs differently in different situations. Another domain of educational psychology

14430-410: The special work. From this experience an office "opened in 1908, in which all Boston children at the time when they left school were to receive individual suggestions with reference to the most reasonable and best adjusted selection of a calling. There is hardly any doubt that the remarkable success of this modest beginning was dependent upon the admirable personality of the late organizer, who recognized

14560-536: The study of social behavior and mental processes that pertain to social behavior. Social psychology is concerned with how humans think about each other and how they relate to each other. Social psychologists study topics such as social influences on individual behavior (e.g. conformity and persuasion ), belief formation, attitudes , and stereotypes . Social cognition integrates social and cognitive psychology in order to help discover how people process, remember, and distort social information. Research on group dynamics

14690-494: The study of the structure and function of the brain as it relates to specific psychological processes and overt behaviors. Neuropsychological research includes studies of humans and animals with brain lesions . Neuropsychologists have also studied electrical activity in individual brain cells (or groups of cells) in humans and other primates. Neuropsychology shares much with neuroscience , neurology , cognitive psychology , and cognitive science . A goal of personality psychology

14820-448: The unfit ones." He gives many reasons why it's difficult to select or place the correct person to any given vocation and says that certain qualities cannot be taken alone to determine a person's suitability for a position including their education, training, technical abilities, recommendation of previous employers, personal impressions of the person "the mental dispositions which may still be quite undeveloped and which may unfold only under

14950-459: The viewer in order to make the advertisement more memorable. Using the psychological research methods and the findings in human's cognition, motivation, attitudes and decision making, those can help to design more persuasive advertisement. Their research includes the study of unconscious influences and brand loyalty. However, the effect of unconscious influences was controversial. The use of these psychologists often create successful advertisements with

15080-540: The western world particularly in the US. Cognitive behavioral therapy and behavior modification are techniques often employed by health psychologists. Psychologists also study patients' compliance with their doctors' orders. Health psychologists view a person's mental condition as heavily related to their physical condition. An important concept in this field is stress , a mental phenomenon with well-known consequences for physical health. Occupational health psychology (OHP)

15210-426: The workplace and people's work lives. In short, I-O psychology is the application of psychology to the workplace. One aspect of this field is job analysis , the detailed study of which behaviors a given job entails. Though the name of the title "Industrial Organizational Psychology" implies 2 split disciplines being chained together, it is near impossible to have one half without the other. If asked to generally define

15340-615: The workplace, and the Physical and social influences on the working power. Finally investigating how a company can secure the best possible effects in terms of sales. Münsterberg talks about ways to study the satisfaction of economic demands, experiments with discovering the effectiveness of advertisements, the psychology of buying and selling, and in the end discusses the future development of economic psychology. Münsterberg's views on women were shaped by his views on biology. Though he firmly believed that women should receive where possible,

15470-551: Was a successful lumber merchant and his mother, Minna Anna Bernhardi (1838–1875), a recognized artist and musician, was Moritz's second wife. Moritz had two sons with his first wife, Otto (1854–1915) and Emil (1855–1915) , and two with Anna, Hugo (1863–1916) and Oscar (1865–1920) . The four sons remained close, and all of them became successful in their careers. A neo-Renaissance villa in Detmold , Germany, that Oscar lived in from 1886 to 1896 has recently been renovated and opened as

15600-415: Was an academic mentor to William Moulton Marston , creator of Wonder Woman . Attribution: Basic science (psychology) Some of the research that is conducted in the field of psychology is more "fundamental" than the research conducted in the applied psychological disciplines, and does not necessarily have a direct application. The subdisciplines within psychology that can be thought to reflect

15730-575: Was appointed exchange professor from Harvard to the University of Berlin . During that year, he founded the Amerika-Institut in Berlin. During his whole stay in the United States, he worked for the improvement of the relations between the United States and Germany, writing in the United States for a better understanding of Germany and in Germany for a higher appreciation of the United States. Because of his work in applied psychology, Münsterberg

15860-410: Was attracting students from James's classes. Part of the responsibilities he assumed as part of his new position at Harvard was that he became the supervisor of the psychology graduate students, in this position directed their dissertation research. As a result, he had a great influence of many students including Mary Whiton Calkins . In 1895 he returned to Freiburg due to uncertainties of settling in

15990-428: Was clear that the boys knew little of what they wanted to do or what would be expected of them in the real world, and the leader was able to give them, especially in one-one-one conversations, valuable advice. They knew too little of the characteristic features of the vocations to which they wanted to devote themselves, and they had given hardly any attention to the question whether they had the necessary qualifications for

16120-478: Was founded, as the first international scholarly society within the field of psychology. Most professional psychologists in the U.S. worked in an academic setting until World War II. But during the war, the armed forces and the Office of Strategic Services hired psychologists in droves to work on issues such as troop morale and propaganda design. After the war, psychologists found an expanding range of jobs outside of

16250-414: Was possible through what a mere call on the vocational counselor could unveil." Münsterberg believes that these early vocational counselors point towards the spirit of the modern tendency toward applied psychology, and that the goal can only be reached through exact, scientific, experimental research, "and that the mere naïve methods—for instance, the filling-out of questionnaires which may be quite useful in

16380-526: Was promoted to assistant professorship and attended the First International Congress of psychology where he met William James . They kept up a frequent correspondence and in 1892, James invited him to Harvard for a three-year term as a chair of the psychology lab even though Münsterberg did not speak English at the time. He learned to speak English rather quickly and as a result his classes became very popular with students, in fact he

16510-464: Was their opposing views on how psychology should be practiced. For Wundt psychology should be a pure science detached from practical concerns, while Münsterberg wanted to apply psychological principles that could be applied to practical concerns. While working as Wundt's research assistant, Münsterberg studied voluntary activities through introspection , but they disagreed on the fundamental principles. Wundt believed that free will could be experienced as

16640-414: Was throughout his career a committed opponent of parapsychology : the field of study concerned with the investigation of paranormal and psychic phenomena. He had a "great record of exposing mediums and other psychic charlatans". A notable episode in this facet of his career involved his exposure of the fraudulent spiritualist medium Eusapia Palladino . The exposure was included in the chapter "My Friends,

16770-412: Was unhappy about James's acceptance of Freudian psychoanalysis , psychic phenomena, and religious mysticism into the area of psychology. Münsterberg had said "Mysticism and mediums were one thing, psychology was quite another. Experimental psychology and psychic hocus-pocus did not mix." Münsterberg made numerous contributions to experimental psychology, including discovering a visual illusion that

16900-475: Was well known to the public, academic world, and scientific community. The outspoken views of Münsterberg on the issues of the upcoming First World War raised storms of controversy about his ideals and position. He appeared as probably the most eminent supporter of German policies in the United States and so was at the utmost bitterly condemned by the Triple Entente (a 1907 informal understanding among

#475524