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71-682: Between 63 B.C. and 330 A.D., Byblos was under Roman rule, and although Christianity existed in Byblos from the time of the Apostles, Christians were a minority among the majority pagans. During their rule, the Romans not only strengthened the worship of idols, but some of their governors actively persecuted the Christians. St. Aquilina, a native of the Phoenician city of Byblos. Her father's name

142-421: A basic progression that one first had to hold the quaestorship before being considered for higher office as praetor or consul , with quaestor as the lowest office. After Sulla's reforms , the cursus honorum was cemented, with the added requirement that to stand for the quaestorship, one first needed to have been one of the vigintiviri and have held the military tribunate . The reforms also established that

213-497: A different aspect of the province, and assisting the governor in decision making. In the provinces with a significant legionary presence, the governor's second-in-command was usually a quaestor , a man elected in Rome and sent to the province to serve a mainly financial role, but who could command the military with the governor's approval. In other provinces governors themselves appointed non-magistrate prefects or procurators to govern

284-582: A governor or general's title – pro praetore or pro consule - was determined by the last held previous urban magistracy: that is, former praetors were prorogued in place of a praetor ( pro praetore ) and former consuls were pro consule . This system, however, started to break down after private citizens were given commands in Spain pro consule during the Second Punic war . By the late republic, praetors were almost always prorogued pro consule . However,

355-487: A higher magistrate were supervised by their superior. Quaestors could be dismissed by their superiors, but this appears rare; there is only one known case thereof, when then-proconsul Marcus Aurelius Cotta dismissed his quaestor Publius Oppius in 73 BC. In the early Republic, one quaestor was attached to each consul, both when the consul was in Rome for civic duties and on military campaign. By 227 BC, every magistrate with imperium (consuls and praetors) left

426-510: A legate with consular imperium , who had general command over the entire army stationed there, as well as administering the province as a proconsul. Appointment to these governorships was completely at the whim of the Emperor and could last anywhere from one to five years. While the Emperor had sole authority in provinces with legions, senatorial provinces were provinces where the Senate had

497-454: A praetorian prefect as something like a chief of staff. The three prefectures thus created were the prefecture of Gaul , the prefecture of Italy (later divided by Constans in 347 or perhaps in 342–47), and the prefecture of the East , each being administered by an imperially-appointed praetorian prefect. The prefect of each prefecture was the highest civilian officer, being subordinate only to

568-400: A province would become a procuratorial province until it was decided that it should become either an imperial or senatorial province and thus governed by either a propraetor or proconsul. Like the other imperial provinces, the equestrian governors could serve any length of time up to five years, or even longer. Much like the senatorial province of Africa, the equestrian province of Roman Egypt

639-401: A role "analogous to... that [of] other members of the governor's entourage, such as his legates". At times, the quaestor could get into tension with the governor's legates over respective spheres of responsibility or accountability; officially, however, the quaestor was "higher up the chain of command... [as], besides the governor, he was the only magistrate [and] representative of the Senate and

710-601: A similar name (the quaestor sacri palatii ) emerged during the Constantinian period with judicial responsibilities. Quaestor derives from the Latin verb quaero , quaerere , meaning "to inquire" (probably ultimately from the Proto-Indo-European root of interrogative pronouns *kʷo- ). The job title has traditionally been understood as deriving from the original investigative function of

781-565: A small part of the province and act as their second-in-command. During the era of the Roman Republic , the council was in charge of appointing governors to Rome's provinces. This was done by appointing promagistrates to serve, either by random casting of lots or by senatus consultum (advice of the Senate); however, these appointments were not formally binding on a legal basis and could be nullified by Roman assemblies . Initially,

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852-471: A specific task without lot (i.e., extra sortem ), likely with the approval of the senate to a magistrate's request. Some quaestors were assigned to specific tasks (the management of the treasury or of the grain supply in Ostia), but most were assigned to assist a higher magistrate. Those assigned to the treasury were supervised by the Senate (usually with the consuls as intermediaries), while those assigned to

923-417: A superior) in the late republic, quaestorian responsibilities increased dramatically as the only Roman magistrate present. At times, quaestors were sent without superiors to peaceful acquisitions to inventory property, auction them if necessary, and transport proceeds to Rome. During normal times under a governor, the quaestor would handle administrative tasks related to supply of the armies. He would oversee

994-443: A symbol of authority and a mark of their position. The Emperor also had under his control a number of smaller, but potentially difficult provinces that did not need an entire legion. These provinces were put under the control of governors of equestrian status. New conquests generally fell into this equestrian category, but most were later changed in status to reflect the changing conditions of Rome's growing empire. Thus, on conquest,

1065-476: The quaestores parricidii . The earliest quaestors were quaestores parricidii , chosen to investigate capital crimes, and may have been appointed as needed rather than holding a permanent position. Under the Republic , these quaestores parricidii persisted, as prosecutors for capital cases in trials before the people. They disappear, however, by the second century BC. Ancient authors disagree on

1136-559: The aerarium under senatorial direction. It is also around this time that Livy reports a relationship between the quaestors and the public treasury. After 267 BC, four more quaestors were added, possibly with assignments to various towns in Italy (e.g., Ostia for management of the food supply). The specific number elected year-to-year is difficult to determine at any time, but before Lucius Cornelius Sulla 's reforms in 81 BC, there were 19 quaestors; his reforms created one for

1207-732: The Dominate , the Emperor Diocletian began in AD 293 reforms of the provincial administration that were completed under the Emperor Constantine the Great in 318. Diocletian set up twelve dioceses (later several were split), originally two to four for each of the four co-emperors under the short-lived Tetrarchy (two senior Augusti , each above a Caesar ), each governed by a vicarius ('vicar') who acted on behalf of

1278-452: The praetorian prefect . Each diocese comprised several Roman provinces (known in Greek as eparchies ), each under the authority of a provincial governor, whose title varied from province to province (the range of titles includes republican relics such as proconsul, as well as novelties such as corrector provinciae , moderator provinciae , praeses provinciae and praesidens ). Although

1349-448: The Emperor (although the Emperor had the power to appoint these governors if he wished). Most senatorial provinces, since they were not under the direct authority of the Emperor, did not grant the governor legions to command. There was one exception to this rule, the province of Africa , where there was always at least a single legion to protect the province from Berber tribes. Augustus decreed that at least ten provinces would be held by

1420-407: The Emperor's wishes. The governor was also supposed to travel across his province to administer justice in the major towns where his attention was required. Finally, and most importantly, he commanded the military forces within the province. In the more important provinces, this could consist of legions , but elsewhere, there were only auxiliaries . As a part of his standing orders, the governor had

1491-453: The Emperor's, or governor's, authority with his approval. The provincial governors were the most important officials in the Roman administration for it was they who were responsible for tax collection, justice in the first instance, and public order in the first instance. They received, from the prefectures, the tax demands three times a year, which they circulated to the municipalities. Under

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1562-524: The Roman people", giving him "greater authority than legates in all areas of provincial command". Quaestors are documented at various times leading and raising troops and fleets under the command of their governors. Some quaestors were delegated significant open-ended responsibilities far exceeding administrative tasks: Lucullus , for example, during the First Mithridatic War as Sulla 's proquaestor, led troops, assembled fleets, travelled

1633-453: The authority of the Roman people through the agency of the Senate. Though all ten were "proconsular", only two of these provinces ( Asia and Africa), were actually governed by senators with proconsular imperium , the remaining eight being governed by propraetors. The two proconsular governors served for one year, while the eight praetors served typically for up to three years. Each of these men had six lictors who served as bodyguards and also as

1704-441: The authority to use his legions to stamp out organized criminal gangs or rebels in the area without need for the Emperor's or Senate 's approval. Every governor had at his disposal a diversity of advisors and staff, who were known as his comites ( Latin for "companions"); the number of these depended on the governor's social standing and rank. These comites would serve as the governor's executive council, with each supervising

1775-522: The city accompanied by a quaestor. This close cooperation led these provincial quaestors to take a more active role in assisting their superiors with military – even assuming command at times – and administrative tasks. The expanding use of prorogation also affected quaestors, who were regularly prorogued with their superiors pro quaestore ; more frustratingly, ancient sources did not always differentiate between quaestors and their proquaestorian counterparts, regularly calling both quaestors. Quaestors in

1846-423: The death of that commander. The relationship between a governor and his quaestor was similar to that between a patron and a client, but was entirely official. While in office together, a quaestor was expected to show "reverence, courtesy, and loyalty" to his governor; the governor was likewise obliged to respect his subordinates. This relationship often continued past the designated terms of either individual, and

1917-551: The diocesan vicars. Field units were commanded by a comes ('companion', whence count ) and later by supreme military commanders, the magistri militum . Constantine, again following Diocletian's lead, organized the Roman Empire into three Praetorian prefectures late in his reign. These were based on the territories controlled by the four co-emperors of the Tetrarchy, two of whom, the senior Augusti, had been served by

1988-495: The eastern Mediterranean as a diplomat, intervened to overthrow governments, commanded naval battles, captured prisoners, and levied taxes and indemnities. When a governor left the province, he normally left it to his quaestor's command (though this was at times given instead to one of his high-ranking legates). If a governor died, however, the quaestor generally assumed command of the forces until replacement, possibly with imperium pro praetore . The specifics of how this imperium

2059-489: The emperor(s). The prefect was the superior of the vicars and governors. He was the chief appellate judge, head of the administration of the prefecture, chief finance officer, and chief tax collector (though the collection was actually done at municipal and village levels). Quaestor A quaestor ( British English : / ˈ k w iː s t ər / KWEE -stər , American English : / ˈ k w i s t ər / ; Latin: [ˈkʷae̯stɔr] ; "investigator")

2130-466: The exact manner of selection for this office as well as on its chronology, with some dating it to the mythical reign of Romulus . This view, however, is "not at all credible" and there is no clear evidence for a specific date for the quaestorship's beginning. The classical quaestors with financial responsibilities may be unconnected with the older questores parricidii . However, the debate still continues, but has more recently trended against connecting

2201-472: The former duties of the quaestors were subsumed by imperial officials, but, in the senatorial provinces, they "retained some financial functions through the Principate". During the reign of the Emperor Constantine I , a new quaestorship was established, called the quaestor sacri palatii ( lit.   ' the quaestor of the sacred palace ' ). The office functioned as a spokesman for the emperor and

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2272-473: The last two centuries of the Republic. After the formation of the permanent courts ( quaestiones perpetuae ), the urban quaestors were also responsible for assembling the jury pools and allocation of portions of those pools to the various courts. These quaestors also handled various tasks assigned ad hoc by the Senate, such as meeting and accompanying foreign dignitaries on state visits or leaving Rome to

2343-409: The magistrate, who sentenced her to be decapitated in the morning, saying that she was a sorceress who refused his imperial decrees. Before the executioner could carry out the sentence, the martyr gave up her spirit. The Christians buried her body outside the city where her tomb became a site for pilgrimage and cures. Later her holy relics were transported to Constantinople where a great basilica

2414-595: The minimum age for candidates had to be 30. Quaestors were elected last in the electoral comitia, as they were of the lowest rank. During the late Republic, however, their terms of office started before their more senior colleagues, on 5 December rather than 1 January. This was the earliest term start of the major magistracies of the Republic, being earlier than that of the tribunes of the plebs (who came into office on 10 December). After election, they were assigned – usually by lot on their first day in office – to their tasks. Very rarely were quaestors directly assigned to

2485-418: The money in the aerarium . Returning magistrates and governors also had to produce detailed account books for their handling of public money, which would then be deposited in the treasury, where the urban quaestors and their staff would audit them. These records were supposed to total a running ledger of starting balances, a line-by-line itemised accounting of all inflows and outflows, and ending balances for

2556-488: The number of quaestors to forty. During the Principate , the number was halved back to twenty by Augustus . He also removed the quaestors from government of the aerarium (with a short interlude under Claudius when this was reversed). The emperor and the two consuls each had two quaestors, with the emperor selecting his own, the quaestores Caesaris , who were often up-and-coming men from noble families. Over time,

2627-403: The office of the quaestor worked in conjunction with the praetorian prefect of the East to oversee the supreme tribunal, or supreme court, at Constantinople . There, they heard appeals from the various subordinate courts and governors. Emperor Justinian I also created the offices quaesitor , a judicial and police official for Constantinople , and quaestor exercitus (quaestor of

2698-425: The practice of appointing equestrians to help manage provinces officially began with Augustus, governors from years before had appointed procurators to help them govern. However, it was not until the reign of Claudius that these procurators received the powers of a governor. Procurators were civilian officials, unlike prefects . Procurators were not magistrates, so did not possess imperium , and merely exercised

2769-401: The proceeds to be deposited in the public treasury. They were also responsible for public auction of property seized from citizens who had debts or fines owed to the state if they were unable to pay. These responsibilities over public debts also included the collection of fines in general, where a convict ordered to pay a fine would be required to make a surety to the urban quaestors and deposit

2840-403: The province. They also included, for generals, detailed lists of all the money, gold, silver, spoils, and other assets acquired during a governorship. The scribes checked the account books, looking for transactional documentation and arithmetic errors, the results were then approved or disapproved by the quaestors. A negative audit could provide fodder for corruption charges, which was regular in

2911-477: The provinces generally remained in the same province as their superiors for the duration of the superior's term, but this was not obligatory, as the quaestorian careers of Gaius Gracchus , Julius Caesar , and the rotating names of quaestors serving under Gaius Verres attest. Terms in the provinces usually lasted one or two years. Quaestors acted militarily solely under the auspices and imperium of their commanders, except under exceptional circumstances such as

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2982-623: The provinces on special assignments. In earlier Republic, the quaestors also controlled the distribution of the legionary aquilae (eagle standards), which were kept in the treasury before distribution to generals before they were returned on the conclusion of a campaign. This likely, however, fell into disuse as Rome expanded across the Mediterranean. Because consuls, praetors, and their promagisterial counterparts were "practically... plenipotentiary agent[s] upon [which all] aspect[s] of government associated with that provincia depended",

3053-581: The provinces that ex-praetors were assigned – regardless of formal title – were usually the more tranquil ones, where chances of revolt or invasion were small. Provinces where imminent military campaigning was expected were instead assigned to recent consuls. These promagistrates held equality with other magistrates with the same level of imperium and were attended by the same number of lictors . Generally speaking, they had autocratic power within their provinces. A provincial governor almost possessed unlimited authority and often extorted vast amounts of money from

3124-446: The provinces – from precious metal stocks on hand. The provincial quaestor also had to carefully record all the money that fell into the provincial government's hands. Other assets acquired by conquest or otherwise classed as war spoils – from gold to grain, arms, and ships – also had to be inventoried, recorded, and deposited in the public treasury at Rome. Captives captured in war were usually sold into slavery in that province, which

3195-411: The provincial population—but, though he retained immunity from prosecution as long as he held his imperium , once he left office he became vulnerable to prosecution for his actions during his term. After Augustus established the Principate , the Emperor himself was the direct governor of Rome's most important provinces (called imperial provinces ) and even in the provinces he did not directly govern,

3266-456: The quaestor could be called upon for assistance or other needs by the consul. Also related were the need to maintain a working relationship to avoid tensions that could endanger the province, as well as a "certain degree of complicity [needed...] to conceal anything that could compromise the magistrates' reputations". There were usually two quaestors assigned to the city of Rome (termed urban quaestors), with both simultaneously responsible for

3337-414: The quaestor's responsibilities could vary widely, including not only financial and administrative matters but also sometimes encompassing military command and judicial functions. In general, however, the core administrative duty of the quaestor was to "[extract] whatever material assets the Roman military apparatus might need". When quaestors were sometimes assigned to a province alone (without attachment to

3408-518: The right to appoint governors. These provinces were away from the Empire's borders and free from the likelihood of rebellion, and so had few, if any, legions stationed in them (thus lessening the chance the Senate might try to seize power from the Emperor). These provinces were under the authority of proconsular or propraetorian senators invariably styled 'proconsul', with little need for intervention by

3479-878: The same cities from governor to governor) and the remaining copy returned to Rome for presentation. Then, at least according to custom, both the quaestor and the governor would return to Rome to present the provincial accounts. Upon the close of the term, the quaestor would coordinate to divide the remaining money between the incoming provincial administration and the treasury in Rome. These great responsibilities with little immediate oversight gave both provincial quaestors and their governors many opportunities for corruption by misappropriating funds, demanding exorbitant taxes, getting involved in various business schemes, or taking bribes outright. Quaestors' behaviour did not always comport with their administrative and legal responsibilities. On campaign, provincial quaestors acted as subordinate military officers to their attached superior, taking

3550-415: The same. The quaestors were aided by assistants called apparitores , who likely served multi-year terms to familiarise themselves with the job; their number multiplied during the later Republic to meet administrative needs. As part of administering the treasury, they also handled the receipt and auditing of war reparations and tribute from polities defeated by Rome. Collections of taxes were also handled by

3621-417: The sole right to impose capital punishment , and capital cases were normally tried before him. To appeal a governor's decision necessitated travelling to Rome and presenting one's case before either the praetor urbanus , or even the Emperor himself, an expensive, and thus rare, process. An appeal was unlikely to succeed anyway, as a governor wouldn't generally take the chance of convicting someone contrary to

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3692-411: The specific titles, which also reflects the province's intrinsic and strategic status, and corresponding differences in authority. By the time of the early Empire , two types of provinces existed— senatorial and imperial —and several types of governor would emerge. Only proconsuls and propraetors fell under the classification of promagistrate . The governor was the province's chief judge. He had

3763-407: The system of selecting proconsuls and propraetors. In provinces with one legion, a legate bearing praetorian imperium , thus being a propraetor, not only governed the province in the Emperor's name but also controlled the legion himself. However, in provinces with more than one legion, each legion was commanded by its own legate with praetorian imperium , while the province as a whole was commanded by

3834-596: The transport of public money assigned by the Senate to the province, record its uses, and use it to pay soldiers' wages or purchase supplies. He also helped manage the taxation of the province in terms of collecting food, supplies, and money from local leaders. In terms of taxation, quaestors also handled the local auction of raw goods to public contractors ( publicani ) or merchants; at times, they also made requisitions from local provincials on orders of their superior or at times on their own accord. This remit also extended to minting coinage – usually to pay soldiers serving in

3905-452: The treasury. While some older scholars believed that the urban quaestors were forbidden from leaving the city, this is now rejected. The normal main duty of the urban quaestors was to handle the aerarium (the public treasury). This involved control and management of the gold and coins stored there, safekeeping of the keys to the treasury, supervision of all public expenses and tax receipts, validation of official documents, and archival of

3976-500: The treaty was later invalidated by the Senate) and Sulla negotiated the capture of Jugurtha at the end of the Jugurthine War . There were initially two quaestors; they were initially appointed by the consuls, but according to Tacitus after 447 BC, they were elected by the comitia tributa . When plebeians were permitted to stand for the quaestorship in 421 BC, two more were added, with assignments to administer

4047-438: The two offices, which are connected by nothing other than a name. The two general theses are that the classical quaestorship related with financial matters either was created entirely separately from the older judicial quaestorship or that it evolved from that older quaestorship to meet greater administrative needs. The traditional cursus honorum (career path) was loosely regulated, but after 197 BC, became more so, with

4118-420: The urban quaestors and their staff, with overpayments reimbursed when funds became available. They also made the appropriate withdrawals from the treasury to cover various expenses – including building, army pay, temple maintenance, state visits, state funerals, road maintenance, minting of coins, etc – as directed by the Senate. They were also in charge of auctions for public land ( ager publicus ). Such land

4189-438: The vicar's authority was supreme within his diocese, he was under the authority of praetorian prefect whose power he partook of the emperor himself. Constantine completely removed the governors' military commands, a process begun under Diocletian. In those provinces where soldiers were stationed, the dux ( Latin for leader) commanded border military units. Some duces commanded units in several provinces: they were watched by

4260-483: The water supply, raising the total to 20. He also made holding the quaestorship compulsory for advancement to future offices. These reforms also established a minimum age for the office, established at 30. Additionally, the reforms granted quaestors automatic membership in the senate upon being elected, whereas previously, membership in the senate was granted only after censors revised the Senate rolls every few years. During Julius Caesar 's dictatorship, he doubled

4331-708: Was Eutolmius. She was raised in Christian piety by her parents. She received her catechism from Evthalios, Bishop of Byblos. When she was only twelve years old, she persuaded a pagan friend to convert to Christ through her example and teachings. One of the servants of Governor Volusian accused her of teaching others to reject paganism. She was taken before the governor where she firmly confessed her belief in Christ and said that she would not renounce Him. Volusian tried to influence her through persuasion and flattery, but seeing her confidence, he ordered her to be tortured . She

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4402-439: Was a public official in ancient Rome . There were various types of quaestors, with the title used to describe greatly different offices at different times. In the Roman Republic , quaestors were elected officials who supervised the state treasury and conducted audits . When assigned to provincial governors, the duties were mainly administrative and logistical, but also could expand to encompass military leadership and command. It

4473-493: Was acquired by conquest and became the property of the Roman people. Land sales could be directed by the Senate to meet funding shortfalls, as during the Second Punic War , when the urban quaestors auctioned lands around Capua to raise funds. These quaestors were also responsible for handling public auction of war booty returned to the public treasury by victorious generals. This included objects as well as slaves, with

4544-437: Was an exception to the general rule of legions only being stationed in imperial provinces. Egypt was not a normal province; it was considered the personal possession of the Emperor, and its governor, the praefectus Aegypti , was considered the hold the highest ranking equestrian post during the early Empire. Later, the post would fall second to that of the praetorian command, but its position remained highly prestigious. Though

4615-592: Was built in her honor near the Forum of Constantine in the Philoxene quarter. This basilica was later destroyed in a fire. Roman governor A Roman governor was an official either elected or appointed to be the chief administrator of Roman law throughout one or more of the many provinces constituting the Roman Empire . The generic term in Roman legal language was rector provinciae , regardless of

4686-533: Was charged with the creation of laws and management of legal petitions, serving as de facto minister of justice. The formal judicial powers of the office were slim, but, as chief legal advisor to the emperor, holders gained substantial influence. Various famous lawyers held this quaestorship, including Antiochus Chuzon and Tribonian , who contributed greatly to the production of the Theodosian Code and Code of Justinian , respectively. From 440 onward,

4757-502: Was delegated after the death of its actual possessor are unclear: some scholars believe that this was automatic, whereas others believed that a proconsul had to first endow his quaestor with propraetorian imperium . A provincial quaestor also could be sent as a diplomatic representative. Two famous examples thereof are those of Tiberius Gracchus and Sulla : Gracchus negotiated a peace treaty on behalf of his proconsul allowing some twenty thousand soldiers to leave with their lives (though

4828-477: Was managed by the quaestor for funds also to be noted in the account books. They also were expected to register those provincial records in Rome upon conclusion of their terms for review by the urban quaestors, which were supposed to record all movements of funds. Loss of those records could give rise to damaging charges of corruption. After Julius Caesar 's lex Julia , these records had to be made in triplicate, with two copies lodged in provincial cities (not always

4899-435: Was senior to other provincial governors through holding imperium maius , or supreme imperium . In imperial provinces, the Emperor would appoint legates to govern in his name. The Emperor had sole say in the appointing of these legates, who were lower in rank than other provincial governors, as officially they were only representatives of the province's true governor, the Emperor. The Principate did not totally do away with

4970-499: Was struck upon the face, then stripped and flogged. Heated metal rods were then drilled through her ears, and St. Aquilina fell down as if dead. The torturers thought that she had actually died, and gave orders that her body be thrown outside the city to be eaten by dogs. However, later that night, an angel appeared to Aquilina, roused her and said, “Arise and be healed. Go and denounce Volusian, so that he and his plans may come to nothing.” Aquilina regained consciousness and went before

5041-405: Was the lowest ranking position in the cursus honorum (course of offices); by the first century BC, one had to have been quaestor to be eligible for any other posts. In the Roman Empire , the position initially remained as assistants to the magistrates with financial duties in the provinces, but over time, it faded away in the face of the expanding imperial bureaucracy. A position with

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