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71-767: The Arbëreshë people are bilingual, also speaking Italian. Arbëresh is classified as Definitely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger . While Italian law protects the language and culture of the Albanian people in Italy, the language taught at school and university is Standard Albanian, constituting an issue for the Arbëresh communities' preservation of their native idiom, wich has remained separated from

142-515: A Western Greek model and dating from the mid-6th to at least the 2nd century BC, when it went extinct following the Roman conquest of the region. The term 'Messapic' or 'Messapian' is traditionally used to refer to a group of languages spoken by the Iapygians , a "relatively homogeneous linguistic community" of non- Italic -speaking tribes ( Messapians , Peucetians and Daunians ) dwelling in

213-461: A palatalized voiced velar plosive [ɡʲ] and a palatalized voiceless velar plosive [kʲ] , rather than a voiced palatal plosive [ɟ] and a voiceless palatal plosive [c] as in standard Albanian. E.g. the word gjith ('all') is pronounced [ɡʲiθ] rather than [ɟiθ] , qiell ('heaven') is pronounced [kʲiɛx] rather than [ciɛɫ] , and shqip ('Albanian') is pronounced [ʃkʲɪp] . GL, KL In some words, Arbëresh has preserved

284-466: A voiced velar fricative [ɣ] . The vast majority of these words originate in Sicilian, but the sound also occurs in words of Albanian origin. Often ⟨G⟩ when pronounced [ɣ] is replaced by ⟨GH⟩ in the Arbëresh orthography, with ⟨G⟩ in theory reserved for /g/ (although in practice it is inconsistent). This feature is very strong that it is carried over into

355-576: A Messapic variant like the ethnonym Graeci which may have been used in its original form by Illyrians for their Greek neighbours in Epirus. A Messapic morphological intermediary has been proposed for Latin lancea (spear) and balaena (from Greek phallaina ). In literature, Horace and Ennius who came from the region are the only authors of Roman antiquity who have preserved the non-Italic word laama (swamp) which might be Messapic. The Messapic verbal form eipeigrave ('wrote, incised'; variant ipigrave )

426-522: A dental affricate or spirant /ts/ or /tš/). Proto-Indo-European * s was rather clearly reflected in initial and intervocalic positions as Messapic h , with notable examples including klaohi and hipa , but note Venas with * s in final position. The Proto-Indo-European voiced aspirates *bh and *dh are certainly represented by the simple unaspirated voiced obstruents /b/ and /d/ in Messapic (e.g., 'berain' < *bher-; '-des' < *dʰeh₁). On

497-499: A god) Since its settlement, Messapic was in contact with the Italic languages of the region. In the centuries before Roman annexation, the frontier between Messapic and Oscan ran through Frentania- Irpinia - Lucania -Apulia. An "Oscanization" and "Samnitization" process gradually took place which is attested in contemporary sources via the attestation of dual identities for settlements. In these regions an Oscan/Lucanian population and

568-524: A large Daunian element intermixed in different ways. Larinum , a settlement which has produced a large body of Oscan onomastics is described as a "Daunian city" and Horace who was from Venusia in the transboundary area between the Daunians and the Lucanians described himself as "Lucanian or Apulian". The creation of Roman colonies in southern Italy after the early 4th century BCE had a great impact in

639-512: A link between the two languages, as some towns in Apulia have no etymological forms outside Albanian linguistic sources. Other linguistic elements such as particles , prepositions , suffixes , lexicon , but also toponyms , anthroponyms and theonyms of the Messapic language find singular affinities with Albanian. Some phonological data can also be compared between the two languages, and it seems likely that Messapic belongs, like Albanian, to

710-470: A local variant of the Hellenistic alphabet rather than in the older Messapic script) only begins in the 4th century BC. The Greek letter Φ (/pʰ/) was not adopted, because it would have been superfluous for Messapic. While zeta "normally" represented the voiced counterpart to /s/, it may have been an affricate in some cases. The value of Θ is unclear, but is clearly dental; it may be an affricate or

781-562: A result of linguistic contacts between Proto-Messapic and Pre-Proto-Albanian within the Balkan peninsula in prehistoric times, or of a closer relation as shown by the quality of the correspondences in the lexical area and shared innovations between Messapic and Albanian. Hyllested & Joseph (2022) identify Messapic as the closest language to Albanian, with which it forms a common branch titled Illyric . Hyllested & Joseph (2022) in agreement with recent bibliography identify Greco-Phrygian as

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852-884: A second contingent of Albanians was rewarded with land east of Taranto , in Apulia , where they founded 15 villages. After the death of Skanderbeg (1468), resistance to the Ottomans in Albania came to an end. Subsequently, many Albanians fled to neighbouring countries and some settled in villages in Calabria. There was a constant flow of ethnic Albanians into Italy into the 16th century, and other Albanian villages were formed on Italian soil. The new immigrants often took up work as mercenaries with Italian armies. For instance, between 1500 and 1534, Albanians from central Greece were employed as mercenaries by Venice , to evacuate its colonies in

923-534: A similar evolutionary pattern to Arvanitika , the Albanian linguistic varieties spoken in Greece. Arbëresh varieties are spoken in Southern Italy in the regions of Abruzzi , Basilicata , Calabria , Campania , Molise , Apulia and Sicily . The varieties of Arbëresh are closely related to each other but are not always entirely mutually intelligible. Arbëresh retains many features of medieval Albanian from

994-519: A specific subgroup of the Indo-European languages that shows distinct reflections of all the three dorsal consonant rows. In the nominal context, both Messapic and Albanian continue, in the masculine terms in -o- , the Indo-European ending *-osyo (Messapic -aihi , Albanian -i / -u ). Regarding the verbal system, both Messapic and Albanian have formally and semantically preserved the two Indo-European subjunctive and optative moods. If

1065-631: A spirant. In any case it appears to have arisen partly as the reflex of the segment * ty . The script used in northern Apulia was rather peculiar, and some consider it to be a distinct writing system named Apulian . A notable difference between the Apulian alphabet and the Laconian-Tarentinian Messapic alphabet was the use of Η ( eta ) for /ē/ rather than /h/. The Messapic language is a 'fragmentary language' ( Trümmersprache ), preserved only in about 600 inscriptions from

1136-706: A website to enable regularly updates to be made available promptly. In February 2009, UNESCO launched an online edition of the Atlas of Endangered Languages which covers the whole world, contains much more information than previous printed editions and offers the possibility to users to provide online feedback, in view of its constant updating. The UNESCO list has 6 categories of endangerment: “Endangered Languages.” CIPL, 14 Jan. 2021, ciplnet.com/endangered-languages/. Accessed 11 Apr. 2024. Messapic language Messapic ( / m ɛ ˈ s æ p ɪ k , m ə -, - ˈ s eɪ -/ ; also known as Messapian ; or as Iapygian )

1207-507: Is rró nj in Arbëresh and rro j in standard Albanian. The present continuous or gerund differs from Standard Albanian; Arbëresh uses the form "jam'e bënj" instead of "po bej" (I am doing). The adoption of words of ancient Greek origin or of the Koine comes above all from their use in Byzantine religious practices, when the corresponding use in Albanian declined, the "courtly" one of

1278-505: Is a dialect or a separate variant of the same language group. The varieties of Arbëresh largely correspond with the regions where they are spoken, while some settlements have distinctive features that result in greater or lesser degrees of mutual intelligibility. The Siculo -Arbëresh variety is spoken exclusively in the Province of Palermo and in three villages: Piana degli Albanesi , Santa Cristina Gela and Contessa Entellina ; while

1349-432: Is a notable loanword from Greek (with the initial stem eipigra- , ipigra- deriving from epigrá-phō , ἐπιγράφω, 'inscribe, engrave'), and is probably related to the fact that the Messapic alphabet has been borrowed from an Archaic Greek script. Other Greek loanwords include argora-pandes ('coin officials', with the first part deriving from ἄργυρος), and names of deities like Athana and perhaps Aprodita , however

1420-752: Is also a Molisan -Arbëresh and an Apulio -Arbëresh. Within the Cosenza Calabrian varieties of Arbëresh, the dialect of Vaccarizzo Albanese is particularly distinct. Spoken in the villages of Vaccarizzo Albanese and San Giorgio Albanese in Calabria by approximately 3,000 people, Vaccarizzo Albanian has retained many archaic features of both Gheg and Tosk dialects. Some features of Arbëresh distinguish it considerably from standard Albanian while also maintaining features still used in other Tosk Albanian dialects. In some cases these are retentions of older pronunciations. The letter ⟨Ë⟩

1491-404: Is also descended from Arvanitika which evolved separately from other forms of Albanian since the 13th century when its first speakers emigrated to Morea from Southern Albania and Epirus. A dialect is defined linguistically as closely related and, despite their differences, by mutual intelligibility. In the absence of rigorous linguistic intelligibility tests, the claim cannot be made whether one

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1562-753: Is an extinct Indo-European Paleo-Balkanic language of the southeastern Italian Peninsula , once spoken in Salento by the Iapygian peoples of the region: the Calabri and Salentini (known collectively as the Messapians ), the Peucetians and the Daunians . Messapic was the pre- Roman , non- Italic language of Apulia . It has been preserved in about 600 inscriptions written in an alphabet derived from

1633-474: Is experiencing contact-induced language shift . Many scholars have produced language learning materials for communities, including those by Giuseppe Schirò Di Maggio , Gaetano Gerbino, Matteo Mandalà, Zef Chiaramonte. The Arbëresh local idioms in some areas are so different from each other that Arbëresh people of those areas use Italian or Standard Albanian as lingua franca to communicate with each other. Arbëresh language beside medieval mainland Tosk Albanian

1704-474: Is frequently used before the sounds ao- or o- , where it is most likely a replacement for the older letter [REDACTED] . Another special letter, [REDACTED] , occurs almost exclusively in Archaic inscriptions from the 6th and 5th centuries BC. Multiple palatalizations have also taken place, as in ' Zis ' < *dyēs, 'Artorres' < *Artōryos, or 'Bla(t)θes' < *Blatyos (where '(t)θ' probably denoted

1775-456: Is pronounced [xɑ] , not [hɑ] . Arbëresh additionally has the palatalized counterpart, [ç] . Therefore, the word hjedh ('throw') is pronounced [çɛθ] . The letter combination ⟨HJ⟩ is present in a few standard Albanian words (without a voiceless velar fricative), but is not treated as a separate letter of the alphabet as it is in Arbëresh. LL, G, GH The letters ⟨LL⟩ and ⟨G⟩ are realised as

1846-507: Is pronounced as either a mid central vowel [ə] or as a close back unrounded vowel [ɯ] . So the word Arbëresh is pronounced either [ɑɾbəˈɾɛʃ] or [ɑɾbɯˈɾɛʃ] depending on the dialect. Arbëresh lacks the close front rounded vowel [y] of Albanian, which is replaced by the close front unrounded vowel [i] . For example ty ('you') becomes tihj , and hyni ('enter') becomes hini . GJ, Q The letters ⟨GJ⟩ and ⟨Q⟩ are pronounced as

1917-603: Is supported by a series of similar personal and place names from both sides of the Adriatic Sea . Proposed cognates in Illyrian and Messapic, respectively, include: ' Bardyl(l)is /Barzidihi', ' Teuta /Teutā', 'Dazios/Dazes', 'Laidias/Ladi-', 'Platōr/Plator-', ' Iapydes / Iapyges ', 'Apulus/Apuli', ' Dalmata /Dalmathus', 'Peucetioe/ Peucetii ', 'Ana/Ana', 'Beuzas/Bozat', 'Thana/Thana', ' Dei-paturos / Da-matura '. The linguistic data of Albanian can be used to compensate for

1988-456: Is uncertain, as the Italian national census does not collect data on minority language speakers. This is also further complicated by the Italian state's protection of the Albanian culture and population as a whole and not Arbëresh Albanian specifically. This law theoretically implements specific measures in various fields such as education, communication, radio, press and TV public service, but in

2059-573: The Illyrian languages , some scholars contend that Messapic may have developed from a dialect of pre-Illyrian, meaning that it would have diverged substantially from the Illyrian language(s) spoken in the Balkans by the 5th century BC, while others considered it a direct dialect of Iron Age Illyrian. Messapic is today considered an independent language and not a dialect of Illyrian. Although the unclear interpretation of Messapic inscriptions cannot warrant

2130-672: The Peloponnese , as the Turks invaded. Afterwards these troops reinforced defences in southern Italy against the threat of Turkish invasion. They established self-contained communities, which enabled their distinct language and culture to flourish. Arbëreshë, as they became known, were often soldiers for the Kingdom of Naples and the Republic of Venice, between the 16th and 19th centuries. Despite an Arbëreshë cultural and artistic revival in

2201-639: The 11th and 14th centuries, Albanian-speaking mercenaries from the areas of medieval Albania , Epirus and Morea now Peloponesse , were often recruited by the Franks , Aragonese , Italians and Byzantines . The invasion of the Balkans by the Ottoman Turks in the 15th century caused large waves of emigration from the Balkans to southern Italy . In 1448, the King of Naples, Alfonso V of Aragon , asked

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2272-543: The 19th century, emigration from southern Italy significantly reduced the population. In particular, migration to the Americas between 1900 and 1940 caused the total depopulation of approximately half of the Arbëreshë villages. The speech community forms part of the highly heterogenous linguistic landscape of Italy, with 12 recognised linguistic minorities Italian state law (law 482/1999). The exact Arbëresh speech population

2343-552: The 4th century BC, this time also involving Daunia and marking the beginning of Peucetian and Daunian epigraphic records, in a local variant of the Hellenistic alphabet that replaced the older Messapic script. Along with Messapic, Greek and Oscan were spoken and written during the Romanization period all over Apulia , and bilingualism in Greek and Messapic was probably common in southern Apulia at that time. Based upon

2414-552: The Albanian noble Skanderbeg to transfer to his service ethnic Albanian mercenaries. Led by Demetrio Reres and his two sons, these men and their families were settled in twelve villages in the Catanzaro area of Calabria . The following year, some of their relatives and other Albanians were settled in four villages in Sicily . In 1459 Ferdinand I of Naples also requested assistance from Skanderbeg. After victories in two battles,

2485-581: The Arbëresh varieties of Sicily and Calabria there are loanwords from the Sicilian language that have crystallized into the Arberesh language matrix at some time in the past but have now mostly disappeared, or evolved in the Romance vocabulary of the local population. This also occurs in other Arberesh varieties outside of Sicily with the local Romance varieties of their communities. Examples: Alongside

2556-533: The IE branch closest to the Albanian-Messapic one. These two branches form an areal grouping – which is often called "Balkan IE" – with Armenian. Although the Illyrian languages – and to some extent Messapic itself – are too scarcely attested to allow for an extensive linguistic comparison, the Messapic language is generally regarded as related to, though distinct from, the Illyrian languages . This theory

2627-582: The Italian speech of inhabitants of Piana degli Albanesi and Santa Cristina Gela in words such as grazie , frigorifero , gallera , magro , gamba etc. which are realised respectively as [ʁratsiɛ] , [friɣoˈrifero] , [ɣaˈlɛra] , [ˈmaɣro] , [ˈʁamba] etc. In Piana degli Albanesi the tendency is to treat Italian loanwords differently from Sicilian , which results in the difference between llampjun , pronounced as [ʁampˈjun] (from lampione , 'lamp post'), and lampadhin , pronounced as [lampaˈðin] (from Italian lampadina ). In

2698-508: The Latinization of the area. A small corpus of Messapic vocabulary did pass into Latin. They include baltea from balta (swamp), deda (nurse), gandeia (sword), horeia (small fishing boat), mannus (pony/small horse) from manda . Messapic was an intermediary for the passing of several, mostly ancient Greek words, into Latin such as paro (small ship) from Greek paroon . The Latin form of Odysseus , Ulixes might derive from

2769-504: The Messapic inscriptions are accessible in the Monumenta Linguae Messapicae (MLM), published in print in 2002. Only Messapic words regarded as 'inherited' from its precursor are hereunder listed, thus excluding loanwords from Greek, Latin or other languages. Proto-Albanian: *bardza ; Albanian: bardhë/bardhi , Bardha ('white', found also in anthroponyms, e.g., Bardh-i , Bardhyl ) Taotor (name of

2840-530: The Sicilian vocabulary element in Siculo-Arbëresh, the language also includes grammatical rules for the incorporation of Sicilian-derived verbs in Arbëresh, which differs from the rules concerning Albanian lexical material. Examples: In the past tense this conjugates as follows: The Arbëresh diminutive and augmentative system is calqued from Sicilian and takes the form of /-ats(-ɛ)/ = Sic. -azz(u/a); for example "kalac" (cavallone/big horse), and

2911-502: The Standard Albanian language – which was unified as a mainly Gheg-based standard from 1908 to 1969, and as a mainly Tosk-based standard from 1969 – as they did not use the standard Albanian form of writing. Since the 1980s, some efforts have been organized to preserve the cultural and linguistic heritage of the language. Arbëresh has been replaced by local Romance languages and by Italian in several villages, and in others

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2982-660: The UNESCO Red Book of Endangered Languages based on the data it collected, the title being derived from that of the Red Book of Endangered Species . Shigeru Tsuchida was to start the research center. It began in 1994 at the University of Tokyo with Tasaka Tsunoda as its director. Meanwhile, the initial reports on endangered languages had already been collected and submitted to UNESCO by regional experts in 1993. These have since been turned over to ICHEL, which created

3053-782: The World%27s Languages in Danger The UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger was an online publication containing a comprehensive list of the world's endangered languages . It originally replaced the Red Book of Endangered Languages as a title in print after a brief period of overlap before being transferred to an online only publication. In 1992, the International Congress of Linguists (CIPL) meeting in Canada discussed

3124-613: The beginning of the 5th century BC. After two victories of the Tarentines, the Iapygians inflicted a decisive defeat on them, causing the fall of the aristocratic government and the implementation of a democratic one in Taras. It also froze relations between Greeks and the indigenous people for about half a century. Only in the late-5th and 6th centuries did they re-establish relationships. The second great Hellenizing wave occurred during

3195-489: The case of the Arberesh community the legal construction of the language as "Albanian" and the community as the "Albanian population" effectively homogenises the language and has not led to adequate provision for the linguistic needs of the communities. Armenian Greek Phrygian (extinct) Messapic (extinct) Albanian Arbëresh varieties derive from varieties of Old Tosk Albanian , which were spoken in southern Albania and Greece . They have experienced

3266-437: The category of aorists formed with the suffix -v- . However, except for the dorsal consonant rows, these similarities do not provide elements exclusively relating Messapic and Albanian, and only a few morphological data are comparable. The development of a distinct Iapygian culture in southeastern Italy is widely considered to be the result of a confluence of local Apulian material cultures with Balkanic traditions following

3337-634: The church was used. The Arberesh use ancient Greek in their liturgies. Thus synonyms are created, such as parkales or lutje for the word "prayer". Some Arbëresh words appear to be of Koine Greek influence. Examples: Some Arbëresh words appear to be of Albanian Arvanitika which has influenced the current Greek areas since the Middle Ages. Examples: On the Koine Greek elements in the Italo-Albanian dialects see T. Jochalas (1975). In

3408-409: The consonant clusters /ɡl/ and /kl/ . In Standard Albanian these have mostly become the palatal stops gj and q, e.g. glet not gjet ('s/he looks like ... '), klumësht not qumësht ('milk'), and klisha instead of kisha ('church'). H, HJ The letter ⟨H⟩ is pronounced as a voiceless velar fricative [x] . As such, the Albanian word ha ('eat')

3479-623: The cross- Adriatic migrations of proto-Messapic speakers in the early first millennium BC. The Iapygians most likely left the eastern coasts of the Adriatic for the Italian Peninsula from the 11th century BC onwards, merging with pre-existing Italic and Mycenean cultures and providing a decisive cultural and linguistic imprint. Throughout the second half of the 8th century, contacts between Messapians and Greeks must have been intense and continuous; they began to intensify after

3550-608: The dawn goddess, goddess of love, beauty, fertility, health and protector of women, in the Albanian pagan mythology , the equivalent of Ancient Greek Aphrodite. The origin of the Messapic goddess Damatura/Damatira is debated: scholars like Vladimir I. Georgiev (1937), Eqrem Çabej , Shaban Demiraj (1997), or Martin L. West (2007) have argued that she was an Illyrian goddess eventually borrowed into Greek as Demeter , while others like Paul Kretschmer (1939), Robert S. P. Beekes (2009) and Carlo De Simone (2017) have argued for

3621-719: The diminutive takes the form of /-tʃ-ɛl(-ɛ) from Sic. /-c-edd(u/a); for example "vajziçele" (raggazzina/little girl).The Arbëresh word for "swear word" is "fjalac" and comes from a fusion of the Arbëresh word of Albanian etymology: "fjalë" plus the Sicilian augmentative /-azz[a]/ minus the feminine gendered ending /-a/; this calques the Sicilian word 'palurazza' which is cognate with Italian 'parolaccia'. There are many instances in which Arberisht differs greatly from Standard Albanian, for instance: Compared with Standard Tosk Albanian (second row), and Gheg Albanian (third row). There are many elements of Arberesh grammar that differ considerably from Albanian, for example: Atlas of

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3692-486: The first example, the ⟨L⟩ becomes ⟨LL⟩ [ʁ] because it comes from Sicilian, whereas in the process of transference from the Italian lampadina to Arbëresh lampadhin , the ⟨l⟩ does not change but the ⟨d⟩ becomes [ð] . Arbëresh has retained an archaic system of final devoicing of consonants in contrast with Standard Albanian. The consonants that change when in final position or before another consonant are

3763-504: The foundation of Taras by Spartan colonists around the end of the century. Despite its geographical proximity with Magna Graecia , however, Iapygia was generally not encompassed in Greek colonial territories, and with the exception of Taras, the inhabitants were evidently able to avoid other Greek colonies in the region. During the 6th century BC Messapia, and more marginally Peucetia, underwent Hellenizing cultural influences, mainly from

3834-538: The lack of fundamental information on Illyrian, since Proto-Albanian (the ancestor language of Albanian ) was likewise an Indo-European language certainly spoken in the Balkans in antiquity, and probably since at least the 7th century BC, as suggested by the presence of archaic loanwords from Ancient Greek . A number of linguistic cognates with Albanian have been proposed, such as Messapic aran and Albanian arë ("field"), biliā and bijë ("daughter"), or menza- and mëz (" foal "). The toponomy points to

3905-544: The latter name is considered to be a Messapic theonym of an Indo-European goddess. It coincides with the Proto-Albanian *apro dītā 'come forth brightness of the day/dawn', which could be the original source of the Ancient Greek Aphrodite , and which is preserved in the Albanian phrase afro dita 'come forth the day/dawn', referring to the planet Venus , and also used to refer to Prende ,

3976-407: The legends of the local currencies promoted by Rome, Messapic appears to have been written in the southern zone, Oscan in the northern area, while the central sector was a trilingual area where Messapic, Greek and Oscan co-existed in inscriptions. Messapic epigraphic records seem to have ended by the 2nd century BC. During the 1st century BCE, the language was replaced by Latin, which is the origin of

4047-548: The main Albanian-speaking compact area for around 500 years. Alongside the fact that Arbëresh is rarely written, another issue for the language attrition is the differentiation between the Albanian varieties used in Italy: the Arbëresh local idioms in some areas are so different from each other that Arbëresh people of those areas use Italian or Standard Albanian as lingua franca to communicate with each other. Between

4118-452: The mid-6th up until the late-2nd century BC. Many of them consist of the personal names of the deceased engraved in burial sites (36% of the total), and only a few inscriptions have been definitely deciphered. Some longer texts are also available, including those recently found in the Grotta della Poesia ( Roca Vecchia ), although they have not been fully exploited by scholars yet. Most of

4189-513: The modern Italian Sallentine dialects of the region. A characteristic feature of Messapic is the absence of the Indo-European phonological opposition between the vowels /u/ and /o/, the language featuring only an o/u phoneme . Consequently, the superfluous letter /u/ ( upsilon ) was not taken over following the initial period of adaption of the Western ("red") Greek alphabet . The 'o/u' phoneme existed in opposition to an 'a/o' phoneme formed after

4260-482: The nearby Taras. The use of writing systems was introduced during this period, with the acquisition of the Laconian-Tarantine alphabet and its progressive adaptation to the Messapic language. The oldest known Messapic texts date to the 6th century–early 5th century BCE. The relationship between Messapians and Tarantines deteriorated over time, resulting in a series of clashes between the two peoples from

4331-516: The other hand, the outcomes of the Indo-European palatal, velar, and labiovelar stops remain unclear, with slender evidence. The Messapic alphabet is an adaptation of the Western ("red") Greek alphabets , specifically the Laconian - Tarantinian version. The actual Messapic inscriptions are attested from the 6th century BC onward, while the Peucetian and Daunian epigraphic record (written in

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4402-542: The phonological distinction between *o and *a was abandoned. The Proto-Indo-European (PIE) vowel /o/ regularly appears as /a/ in inscriptions (e.g., Venas < *Wenos; menza < *mendyo; tabarā < *to-bhorā). The original PIE phonological opposition between ō and o is still perceptible in Messapic. The diphthong *ou , itself reflecting the merged diphthongs *ou and eu , underwent sound change to develop into ao , then into ō (e.g., *Toutor > Taotor > Θōtor). The dental affricate or spirant written Θ

4473-446: The placement of Messapic in any specific Indo-European subfamily, some scholars place Illyrian and Messapic in the same branch. Eric Hamp has grouped them under "Messapo-Illyrian", which is further grouped with Albanian under "Adriatic Indo-European". Other schemes group the three languages under "General Illyrian" and "Western Paleo-Balkan". A number of shared features between Messapic and Proto-Albanian may have emerged either as

4544-405: The reconstructions are correct, we can find, in the preterital system of Messapic, reflections of a formation in *-s- (which in other Indo-European languages are featured in the suffix of the sigmatic aorist), as in the 3rd sg. hipades/opades ('he dedicated' < *supo-dʰeh₁-s-t ) and in the 3rd pl. stahan ('they placed' < *stah₂-s-n°t ). In Albanian, this formation was likewise featured in

4615-736: The region of Apulia before the Roman conquest. However, some scholars have argued that the term ' Iapygian languages' should be preferred for referring to the group of languages spoken in Apulia, with the term 'Messapic' being reserved to the inscriptions found in the Salento peninsula , where the specific tribe of the Messapians had been living in the pre-Roman era. The name Apulia itself derives from Iapygia after passing from Greek to Oscan to Latin and undergoing subsequent morphological shifts. Armenian Greek Phrygian (extinct) Messapic (extinct) Albanian Messapic

4686-606: The time before the Ottoman invasion of Albania in the 15th century. Arbëresh varieties also retain some Greek elements, including vocabulary and pronunciation, most of which they share with Arvanitika varieties. Many of the conservative features of Arbëresh were lost in mainstream Albanian Tosk. For example, it has preserved certain syllable-initial consonant clusters which have been simplified in Standard Albanian (cf. Arbëresh gluhë /ˈɡluxə/ ('language/tongue'), vs. Standard Albanian gjuhë /ˈɟuhə/ ). Arbëresh most resembles

4757-691: The topic of endangered languages, as a result of which it formed the Endangered Languages Committee. It held an international meeting also in 1992 in Paris to place the topic before the world and initiate action. The meeting was considered important enough to come under the authority of UNESCO . At the instigation of Stephen Wurm the committee resolved to create a research center, the International Clearing House for Endangered Languages (ICHEL) and to publish

4828-411: The varieties of Albanian spoken in the southern region of Albania, notably Lab Albanian , as well as Cham Albanian . Arbëresh was commonly called Albanese ('Albanian' in the Italian language) in Italy until the 1990s. Until the 1980s Arbëresh was mostly a spoken language, except for its written form used in the Italo-Albanian Byzantine Church , and Arbëreshë people had no practical connection with

4899-430: The varieties of Piana and Santa Cristina Gela are similar enough to be entirely mutually intelligible, the variety of Contessa Entellina is not entirely intelligible. Therefore a further dialect within Siculo-Arbëresh known as the Palermitan -Arbëresh variety can be identified, as well as a Cosenza variety, a Basilicata variety, and a Campania variety represented by the speech of one single settlement of Greci . There

4970-402: The voiced stops b, d, g, gj ; the voiced affricates x, xh ; and the voiced fricatives dh, ll, v, z, zh . Examples: Stress in Arbëresh is usually on the penultimate syllable, as in Italian . In Arbëresh, just like in Tosk, the first person present indicative (e.g. "I work") is marked by the word ending in NJ , whereas in standard Albanian this is normally marked by J . So, 'I live'

5041-430: Was a non- Italic and non-Greek Indo-European language of Balkan origin. Modern archeological and linguistic research and some ancient sources hold that the ancestors of the Iapygians came to Southeastern Italy (present-day Apulia ) from the Western Balkans across the Adriatic Sea during the early first millennium BC. Messapic forms part of the Paleo-Balkan languages . Based upon lexical similarities with

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