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26-585: Arjunawiwāha was the first kakawin to appear in the East Javan period of the Javanese classical Hindu-Buddhist era in the 11th-century. It was composed by Mpu Kanwa during the reign of King Airlangga , king of the Kahuripan Kingdom, circa 1019 to 1042 CE . Arjunawiwaha is estimated to have been finished in 1030. The kakawin epic tells the story of Arjuna , an excellent archer and

52-580: A formalized literary language , rather than the vernacular . Poets composed and performed the poems at the courts of central and east Java kings between the 9th and 16th centuries, and in Bali . Although the poems depict events and characters from Hindu mythology, the narratives are set in the local landscapes of the islands. They are rich sources of information about courtly society in Java and Bali. A kakawin stanza consists of four lines. Each line has

78-609: A lengthy discussion on the transformations of the original text along the centuries. Henry publishes a partial translation in 1981. Robson publishes a complete translation in 2008. The Arjunawiwaha is preserved in many manuscripts in Bali. But in the 1970's, Indonesion languages specialist Christiaan Hooykaas (1902-1979) was of the opinion that nobody in Bali knew anything about the tengahan metres any more. In 1972, Robson published an article mentioning that in Bali, Old Javanese texts were still known, read and studied. Among its students

104-615: A new cultural force engendered a written literature in Malay. This historical hiatus is what makes Old Javanese literature quite special for its rarity. No other Indianized countries of Southeast Asia have produced comparable literatures During the 10th century, the centre of the Javanese kingdom moved from Central Java to the lower valley of the Brantas River in East Java. There it came under severe attack, possibly from Srivijaya; At

130-479: A set number of syllables per line, set in patterns of long and short syllables based on Sanskrit rules of prosody . A syllable which contains a long vowel is called guru (Sanskrit for "heavy"), while a syllable which contains a short one is called laghu (Sanskrit for "light"). The term guru laghu denotes the structure of a line. For example, each line of the kakawin metre called " Śardūlawikrīd[?]ita " consists of 19 syllables. The guru laghu of each line

156-420: A specific form. Furthermore, the vowel sound of the final syllable must match a specific pattern (note that this is different from syllable rime , as consonants that follow, if any, do not have to match). The pattern of the length of lines is known as guru wilangan , guru pètungan , or guru wichalan , while the pattern of vowels is known as dhongdhing or guru lagu . In the schemes below, the number represents

182-536: A syllable with a vowel followed by two consonants is also long. In addition to that the last syllable of a line may both contain a long or a short syllable. It is an anceps . Javanese poetry The most sacred are the sekar ageng (Low Javanese: tembang gedhé ; "great songs"). These were traditionally held to be the most ancient of the forms, but Jaap Kunst believed that the indigenous forms represented an older tradition. The ancient forms of these, known as kakawin , use meters from Indian poetry , specifying

208-777: A systematic knowledge of morphology and grammar, or try to establish historical derivations and etymologies; they are mainly based on contemporary/popular lexical know-how, “folk etymology”, and associative thinking effected through homology, metaphor, and assonance. These techniques are akin to the Sanskrit nirvacana , which unpack meanings from words rather than reduce them to their bare essentials. Kakawin Kakawin are long narrative poems composed in Old Javanese , also called " Kawi ", written in verse form with rhythms and meters derived from Sanskrit literature. Poets used

234-474: A weapon that gives invisibility ( kubera – antardhanastra or antardhana ); and a second time, on the 14th day of the Kurukshetra war, Arjuna meets Krishna in a dream and both go to Shiva who leads them to a pond where there are two snakes that turn into a bow and arrow. The morality in it is about not using the opportunity to obtain the highest benefit for oneself, such as liberation from the world (i.e.

260-481: Is as follows" ---|UU-|U-U|UU-|--U|--U| U. The notation "-" means that the syllable in question is long, while the "U" means that the syllable is short. As an example, the opening stanza of the Kakawin Arjunawiwaha , which is in the metre Śardūlawikrīd[?]ita , is taken: A syllable which contains a long vowel is automatically long (ā, ī, ū, ö, e, o, ai, and au) and thus guru . But on the other hand,

286-461: Is no longer distinguished.) These indications are ordinarily indicated with the form; for example, sekar ageng Bongsa patra , lampah 17, pedhotan 4,6,7. According to Padmasasustra, there are 44 types of sekar ageng used in Surakarta . A sekar ageng is sometimes used as a type of buka (song introduction) known as a bawa . It is sung solo, or may be supported by the gendér . Only the first line

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312-554: Is used in the introduction, and the rest may follow in the actual gendhing . Martopangrawit believes that this began only in the late 19th century, at the time of Paku Buwana IX (r. 1861-93). Sekar madya (Low Javanese: Tembang tengahan ; "middle songs") are supposed to lie between the other two genres, but there is no agreement about which genres are considered sekar madya and which are tembang macapat (old orthography: machapat ). Both of these, in contrast to sekar ageng, use varying number of lines of varying length, but always in

338-494: The boar first and therefore it belongs to him. A dispute breaks out until Arjuna realizes that the hunter is Shiva. Shiva then presents Pashupata to Arjuna. Another version is that Arjuna received the weapon pashupatastra ( astra ) twice from Shiva: the first time on the Indrakila mountain, where Arjuna also receives weapons from other gods — a club ( yama – dandastra or danda ), a loop ( varuna – pasastra or pasa ) and

364-700: The cycle of reincarnations), but choosing to remain in the world in order to seek the welfare of others. In 1025 the Indian Chola Empire attacked the Srivijaya confederation of kingdoms, centred at Palembang (present South Sumatra) according to archaeological findings. Not only this seriously weakened Srivijaya; it obliterated its scholarly scene, made of famous Buddhist teachers who had attracted students even from India. Their works have been preserved in Tibetan translations. Somewhat later, Islam as

390-523: The effort to preserve and define the Balinese spiritual heritage was led by the very active Parisadha Hindu Dharma movement, that produced books intended for study and containing moralistic texts or guides for worship; and he Old Javanese classics provide a base for the Hindu society of Bali, legitimized by its high antiquity and having the authority of Scripture. These texts' Scriptural authority reaches

416-493: The guru wilangan, while the letter is the guru lagu of the corresponding line. In addition to these formal structures, each of these forms has a specific mood. The typical use is indicated after the form for many of the structures below. Padmasoesastra listed 11 types of sekar madya forms used in Surakarta. Many of them, however, are no longer used. The ones in modern use are: Two meters were classified as macapat forms in

442-470: The number of syllables in each line, their vowel length , and the location of caesurae . Exactly how this ancient form sounded when sung is hard to know, as the modern form has been influenced by gamelan structures. It may have resembled modern Indian or Balinese chant . The modern form of sekar ageng are always in stanzas of four lines, and the number of syllables in each ( lampah ) is fixed and divided into parts ( pedhotan ) by caesurae. (Vowel length

468-531: The past, but are now considered sekar madya: The common macapat forms are: As an example, consider the following Kinanthi verse, a stanza from the Serat Centhini : These forms are the basis of kidung poetry. The text for these songs is frequently used in works for the gamelan, frequently sung by the gerong . Indeed, many modern gendhing share common macapat texts, especially Kinanthi, fit into their individual melodic pattern. Sumarsam believes that

494-1054: The religious rituals. As such, the “hymn to Siwa”, a passage from the Arjunawiwaha (10-11) that is also quoted in the Parisadha Hindu Dharma books, is part of a temple ritual. It starts with the words: “ Om sěmbahning anātha tinghalana de trilokaśaraņa ” (“Hail! May the homage of the protectorless be seen by the refuge of the three worlds.”). Bas-reliefs depicting the Arjunawiwaha were carved on East Javanese candis (temples), such as Candi Kedaton in Probolinggo Regency , Candi Surawana near Kediri, Candi Jago near Malang; and in Bali on Rambut Siwi in Mendoyo district, Jembrana Regency . sekaha mabasan clubs of modern Bali... are characterized by “extemporaneous glossing” using hermeneutical strategies that do not (primarily) involve analytical means, drawn from

520-440: The same time, the demon ( asura ) Niwatakawaca is disturbing the peace and order of the gods' abode ( svargaloka ) and can only be defeated by a man. The gods decide to test Arjuna and send him seven apsaras to seduce him and lure him away from his quest. This failing to deter him from his meditation and ascetism, Arjuna is tested anew, this time to determine whether he seeks the welfare of others or only his own deliverance from

546-426: The seven apsaras in turn. At the end of the text, its author Mpu Kanwa adds that he is about to accompany his king Airlangga into battle. Along this quest, Arjuna receives weapons - but conflicting sidelines occur with the basic story: some mention only one weapon, others mention several weapons. One of these sidelines tells of the appearance of a boar, that Arjuna shoots; then a hunter comes in who claims to have hit

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572-523: The third of the five legendary Pandawa brothers mentioned in the Mahabharata . It is set at the time when the brothers had lost everything to their rivals and cousins, the Korawa . Arjuna aims at regaining his family's fortunes by obtaining a weapon from the gods, and to that effect he practises meditation and asceticism - according to Robson (2001) on Mount Indrakila as a symbol of Mount Meru . At

598-413: The time of the Arjunawiwaha writing (assuming that that is between 1028 and 1035), Airlangga has reasserted his position as king in East Java. Srivijaya and Java may have been competitors in the period leading up to this. The Arjunawiwaha is among the texts that survived in Java and was transformed by writers some centuries later. It was written in macapat verse by Susuhunan Pakubuwana III under

624-487: The title Serat Wiwaha Jarwa or Mintaraga , dated 1778. It also took the title Serat Wiwaha Jarwa , attributed to Yasadipura I but in fact written by Carel Frederik  [ id ] , Sr. (1799–1859), and published by W. Palmer van den Broek in 1868. The first known translation is in Dutch by R. Ng. Poerbatjaraka in 1926; it is deemed to have a few gaps. In 1990, Wiryamartana publishes an Indonesian translation and

650-440: The world. To this purpose, the god Indra descends to earth disguised as an old Brahmana and discusses religious matters with Arjuna; Arjuna correctly answers Indra's questions, the latter then reveals his true identity and returns to svargaloka. Thus Arjuna passes this second test. He is then given the task of defeating Niwatakawaca. He eventually achieves this too, and receives a reward: seven days in heaven and marriage to each of

676-520: Was a mabasan group in the Pura Dalem in Pliatan, led by Ketut Lagas, who at that time worked on reading and interpreting the Arjunawiwaha . Balinese collections contain hundreds of texts but only a few were regularly mentioned as important: Ramayana , Arjunawiwaha , Bharatayuddha , Bhomantaka and Sutasoma . These were deemed to convey edifying teachings; but this may be due to that

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