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54-661: The European Defence Agency ( EDA ) is an agency of the European Union (EU) that promotes and facilitates integration between member states within the EU's Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP). The EDA is headed by the EU High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy , European Commission’s Vice President (HR/VP), and reports to the Council . The EDA was established on 12 July 2004 and

108-605: A framework for transatlantic cooperation on shared defence issues, including supply chains. The Agency signed Administrative Arrangements with Norway (2006), Switzerland (2012), Serbia (2013), Ukraine (2015) and the United States (2023) enabling them to participate in EDA's projects and programmes without exercising voting rights. All Administrative Arrangements are approved by the European Council. The Head of

162-494: A list of 50 ideas and was whittled down to provide a short list of small-scale projects. Major armament projects are intended in the future (EU forces use 178 different weapon systems compared to 30 in the US), but initially PESCO is to be focused on smaller operations to lay groundwork. PESCO projects as of February, 2021 and participating countries by category: Control capabilities GMSCE Potential future PESCO projects include

216-619: A major brainstorming exercise about the future direction of the European Union. Its final purpose was to produce a draft constitution for the EU to finalise and adopt. This period saw a renewed impetus for the creation of a European Defence Agency. In its final report, the Convention working group on Defence laid out some of the foundations of what would become the European Defence Agency we know today - although

270-611: A member of the European Parliament from 1994 to 2019, the US is lobbying strongly against increased military cooperation between EU member states, going as far as to directly invite MEPs to 'private dinners' to try to convince them to vote against any directives or laws that would seek to strengthen military cooperation within the EU. Despite opposition to PESCO, the United States expressed its desire to participate in

324-541: A range of activities critical to collaborative defence capability development in Europe. On top of leading the work on identifying, together with Member States, Key Strategic Activities (KSA) at EU level, the ISE Directorate is responsible for the effective engagement with industry across the agency's activities and in support of related priorities set by Member States. The ISE Directorate facilitates work to address

378-738: A representative of the European Commission and is led by the Head of the Agency. The Steering Board is responsible for projects such as the proposed pan-European Future Transport Helicopter . The Chief Executive (CE, appointed by the HR/VP, is the agency's head of staff, responsible for the supervision and daily management of the agency. Since April 2020 the EDA Steering Board appointed Jiří Šedivý , former Czech Defence Minister,

432-502: A sign that the United States fears a loss of influence in Europe, as a militarily self-sufficient EU would make NATO increasingly irrelevant. Alongside better military cooperation, PESCO also seeks to enhance the defence industry of member states and create jobs within the EU, which several US politicians have criticised over fears of losing revenue from EU states (on average, the United States sells over €1 billion in weapons to EU countries per year). According to Françoise Grossetête ,

486-666: A treaty with France for a Combined Joint Expeditionary Force whether acting bilaterally or through NATO, the EU or other coalition arrangements and on 6 October 2022 the UK joined the military mobility project within the EU’s Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) framework. Agencies of the European Union The agencies of the European Union (formally: Agencies, decentralised independent bodies, corporate bodies and joint undertakings of

540-527: A view to the most demanding missions shall establish permanent structured cooperation (PESCO) within the EU framework. PESCO was seen as the way to enable the common defence foreseen in Article 42, but the scepticism towards further integration that had arisen around the rejection of the European Constitution meant its activation was unlikely. It was termed, by President Jean-Claude Juncker ,

594-529: Is EDA Chief Executive upon recommendation of the Head of the European Defence Agency Josep Borrell . He succeeded Jorge Domecq who was EDA’s CE from 2015 to 2020. EDA’s CE is seconded by a Deputy Chief Executive (DCE). Since February 2023, EDA’s DCE has been André Denk, a German Major General. Since 2019 the agency has been reorganised into four directorates. The Industry Synergies & Enablers Directorate supports

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648-777: Is based in Brussels , Belgium, along with a number of other CSDP bodies. All EU member states take part in the agency. The EDA and the European External Action Service (EEAS), including the EU Military staff (EUMS) , together form the Secretariat of the Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO), the structural integration pursued by 26 of the 27 national armed forces of the EU since 2017. The council established

702-534: Is the place where Member States willing to develop capabilities in cooperation do so. It is also a key facilitator in developing the capabilities necessary to underpin the Common Security and Defence Policy of the Union. Current organigramme is available here The Agency is monitored and managed in three ways. The EU HR/VP, currently Josep Borrell , acts as the Head of the EDA. The Head is responsible for

756-700: The 1st European Political Community Summit , British Prime Minister Liz Truss committed the United Kingdom to joining PESCO and its Military Mobility project. On 15 November 2022, the Council of the EU invited the UK to participate in the Military Mobility project. PESCO includes two of the three EU states that describe themselves as neutral (Austria and Ireland), and is designed to be as inclusive as possible by allowing states to opt in or out as their unique foreign policies allow. Some members of

810-537: The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine showed support for the country joining PESCO. While PESCO was formed in part due to doubts over the United States' commitment to NATO, officials stress that PESCO will be complementary to NATO security rather than in competition with it. NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg also highlighted how Military Mobility is a key example of NATO and EU co-operation. The United States has voiced concerns and published 'warnings' about PESCO several times, which many analysts believe to be

864-685: The European Defence Agency and PESCO, on 8 April 2022. Danish voters approved ending the opt-out in a 1 June 2022 referendum , which became effective 1 July. Subsequently the country proceeded to consider participating in PESCO, which was approved by Parliament in March 2023. The Council of the EU approved Denmark joining PESCO on 23 May 2023. Since November 2020, third countries can also participate in PESCO. [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Canada, Norway, and

918-529: The European System of Financial Supervision ) London (2011–2019) ( [REDACTED]   UK till 2019) Single Resolution Mechanism bodies (of the European banking union ) Common Security and Defence Policy agencies (under the former II Pillar) Executive agencies are created by European Commission for a fixed period. A joint undertaking is a juridical person and a subsidiary body of

972-615: The Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO). The Directorate also identifies, plans and proposes collaborative opportunities in support of EU capability development priorities and tailored to Member States' needs, representing a coherent approach from priority setting to impact. The Directorate is in charge of preparing the Capability Development Plan, based on the analysis of military requirements conducted together with Member States. It also identifies output- oriented EU capability development priorities and coordinates

1026-678: The Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the EDA set up a project for the Common Procurement of Ammunition , looking at 155mm artillery rounds and a longer term project looking at multiple ammunition types, to support Ukraine and to replenish national stocks. By March 2023, 25 countries had joined the project. The EDA also signed an agreement in April 2023 with the United States Department of Defense designed to provide

1080-486: The Ukraine–European Union Association Agreement . In 2016, Donald Trump , who was elected as President of the United States , was critical of NATO allies, even refusing on several occasions to back the mutual defence clause; and the United Kingdom, one of the EU's two largest military powers, voted in a referendum to withdraw from the EU . This new environment, while very different from

1134-919: The Western European Armaments Group (WEAG) – it effectively represents the transference of their functions from the WEU to the EU framework, and thus continues the decommissioning of the WEU. Established by the European Council in December 2001 following the Laeken Declaration, the European Convention (also known as the Convention on the Future of Europe ) was a body intended to include the main EU “stakeholders” in

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1188-614: The Agency is responsible for negotiating these arrangements in accordance with directives given by the EDA Steering Board. The departure of the United Kingdom from the EU in 2020 saw no mention within EU/UK agreements of the DEA working with the UK. The UK is one of the top five defence spenders in the world and its departure means that only France, alone in the EU, can conduct full-spectrum military operations abroad. The UK still maintains

1242-507: The Agency's operating costs. Individual projects are funded separately. In its draft budget for the period 2021–2027, the European Commission will allocate €27.5 billion for defence and security. The European Defence Agency is part of several decades of steadily more formal defence cooperation in Europe. Its work is a continuation of the work of the Western European Armaments Organization (WEAO) and

1296-429: The Council, which will approve based on a qualified majority of participating member states. Those Member States whose military capabilities fulfil higher criteria and which have made more binding commitments to one another in this area with a view to the most demanding missions shall establish permanent structured cooperation within the Union framework. Such cooperation shall be governed by Article 46. It shall not affect

1350-580: The Council, which will approve based on a qualified majority of participating member states: [REDACTED] Denmark originally had an opt-out from participating in the common defence policy. However, following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, the Danish parliament adopted a proposal in favour of the country participating in the Common Security and Defence Policy , including

1404-563: The EDA "to support the Member States and the Council in their effort to improve European defence capabilities in the field of crisis management and to sustain the European Security and Defence Policy as it stands now and develops in the future". Within that overall mission are three functions; EDA acts as a catalyst, promotes collaborations, launches new initiatives and introduces solutions to improve defence capabilities. It

1458-528: The EU or Euratom, established through an agreement between the European Commission , the participating member states, and the European industry of a certain field, with the purpose of implementing a public-private partnership project. The list includes the two decentralised bodies other than agencies, established as EU juridical persons through secondary legislation of the EU/Euratom. The list includes

1512-500: The EU put defence co-operation on its post-Brexit Bratislava and Rome declarations. There was some disagreement between France and Germany about the nature of PESCO. France foresaw a small but ambitious group with serious capabilities making major practical leaps forward; while Germany, weary of further divisions in the EU, wanted a more inclusive approach that could potentially include all states, regardless of their military capability or willingness to integrate. Further, for Germany, it

1566-459: The EU, and in some cases, also across the EEA countries, Switzerland, Serbia, Ukraine, the United Kingdom and Turkey. Nevertheless, in relations with other non-EU third countries, they are in general not recognised as independent entities, thus being considered either parts of the juridical personality of the EU or Euratom. Some of the agencies, decentralised independent bodies and joint undertakings of

1620-620: The EU. PESCO is similar to enhanced co-operation in other policy areas, in the sense that integration does not require participation of all EU member states. PESCO was first written into the European Constitution under Article III-312 , which failed ratification, and then into the Treaty of Lisbon of 2009. It added the possibility for those members whose military capabilities fulfil higher criteria and which have made more binding commitments to one another in this area with

1674-728: The European Commission for the Preparatory Action for defence research, including its implementation, and the research dimension of the European Defence Fund. The Directorate also ensures the promotion of innovation in defence and the exploitation of synergies at EU level with civil research in dual-use technology fields. The Corporate Services Directorate provides business and administrative support to EDA and includes units such as human resources, finance, IT, security, and infrastructure management, and

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1728-412: The European Union and Euratom ) are bodies of the European Union and Euratom established as juridical persons through secondary EU legislation and tasked with a specific narrow field of work. They are distinct from: In contrast to other EU bodies established through secondary legislation, each of more than fifty such entities has its own juridical personality granted by the EU law, recognised across

1782-530: The European Union and Euratom are tasked with answering the need to develop scientific or technical know-how in certain fields, others bring together different interest groups to facilitate dialogue at European and international level. They are divided into the following groups: Distinct from the EU institutions, the agencies of the European Union are specialist bodies set up to advise the Institutions and Member States in areas that affect everyone living in

1836-489: The Irish Parliament considered Ireland joining PESCO as an abandonment of neutrality. The measure was passed, with the government arguing that its opt-in nature allowed Ireland to "join elements of PESCO that were beneficial such as counter-terrorism, cyber security and peace keeping ... what we are not going to be doing is buying aircraft carriers and fighter jets." While critics of Ireland's participation point to

1890-703: The Lisbon Treaty's " sleeping beauty ". In the 2010s, the geopolitical landscape around the EU began to change, triggering a series of crises. The Libyan Civil War , the Syrian Civil War and the rise of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant caused the European migrant crisis . Russia intervened in Ukraine in 2014, annexing Crimea and triggering an ongoing conflict in the country over

1944-441: The Military Mobility project in 2021. European analysts have suggested that this might pose an attempt to undermine an independent European defence policy from within. The European Defence Agency and European External Action Service act as PESCO's secretariat. The projects are incentivised by the European Commission ’s European Defence Fund . There is a two-layer governance structure: The first PESCO projects started with

1998-519: The Union. They are located in member states across the EU, providing services, information, and know-how. The total budget of all the decentralised agencies is approximately 0.8% of the EU's annual budget. Single market agencies (under the former I Pillar) London (1995–2019) ( [REDACTED]   UK until 2019) Area of freedom, security and justice agencies (under the former III Pillar) Bramshill (2005–2014) ( [REDACTED]   UK till 2014) European supervisory authorities (of

2052-475: The United States have applied to participate in the project to improve military mobility in Europe. Norway had been active in past EU military operations. The EU governments will soon decide on the applications in a multi-stage admission process. [REDACTED] In May 2021, Turkey ( Turkey ) applied to participate in the Military Mobility project, but this was opposed by Austria in addition to

2106-522: The approval of a Council Decision. Denmark did not participate as (prior to its abolition in July 2022) it had an opt-out from the Common Security and Defence Policy , nor did the United Kingdom, which withdrew from the EU in 2020. Malta opted out as well, due to concerns it might conflict with its neutrality. As per Article 46 of the TEU, non-participating EU member states can request to join by notifying

2160-505: The commitment to increase defence spending, the government has made clear that the 2% commitment is collective, and not for each state individually. The Irish government has made clear that any defence spending increase by Ireland would be minor. Malta, the only neutral state not to participate, argued that it was going to wait and see how PESCO develops, in order to see whether it would compromise Maltese neutrality. [REDACTED] In Switzerland , an opinion poll conducted two months after

2214-400: The decision only the states already part of the PESCO will participate. If a participating state no longer fulfills the criteria a decision suspending its participation is taken by the same procedure as for accepting new participants, but excluding the concerned state from the voting procedure. If a participating state wishes to withdraw from PESCO it just notifies the Council to remove it from

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2268-661: The development of Strategic Context Cases to facilitate the implementation of these priorities. The Research, Technology & Innovation Directorate promotes and supports defence research at EU level. Based on the Overarching Strategic Research Agenda (OSRA), developed together with the Member States, the Directorate coordinates and plans joint research activities and the study of technical solutions to meet future operational needs. The RTI Directorate provides support to Member States and to

2322-614: The existing tensions with Greece and Cyprus. In June 2022, Finland and Sweden committed to "support the fullest possible involvement of Turkey and other non-EU Allies in the existing and prospective initiatives of the European Union's Common Security and Defence Policy, including Turkey's participation in the PESCO Project on Military Mobility" in a trilateral memorandum agreed to at the 2022 Madrid summit to facilitate Turkey's ratification of Finland and Sweden 's NATO membership application. [REDACTED] On 6 October 2022, at

2376-508: The final name wasn’t there yet. “The setting up on an intergovernmental basis of a European Armaments and Strategic Research Agency was supported by many in the Group”, the official document stated. “The Agency’s initial tasks would be to ensure the fulfilment of operational requirements by promoting a policy of harmonised procurement by the Member States and to support research into defence technology, including military space systems. A year after

2430-543: The following existing intergovernmental cooperations between member states' militaries, presently outside the CSDP framework: Forces and command centres: Bodies fostering integration: Other initiatives of the Common Security and Defence Policy established after the introduction of the European Union Global Strategy : Other 'European' defence organisations that are currently not part of

2484-528: The implications of EU legislation and policies for the defence sector: REACH, procurement, funding instruments and the analysis of developments influencing governmental and industrial stakeholders. The Capability, Armament & Planning Directorate supports the coherent development of the European defence landscape by integrating EDA's involvement in the Capability Development Plan (CDP), the Coordinated Annual Review on Defence (CARD) and

2538-429: The legal office. The agency is financed by its members in proportion to their Gross National Income . An effect of this is that some nations pay different contributions towards the budgets than others. EDA's budget consists of the general budget, the budgets associated with ad hoc projects or programmes and budgets resulting from additional revenue for a total budget of €151.847 million in 2022. This budget covers

2592-595: The list of participants. All other decisions and recommendations of the Council concerning PESCO issues unrelated to the list of participants require a unanimous vote of the participating states. The criteria established in the PESCO Protocol are the following: The following member states have announced their intention of participating in PESCO: As per Article 46 of the TEU, the following non-participating EU member states can request to join by notifying

2646-500: The one PESCO was designed for, gave new impetus to European defence cooperation. The withdrawal of the UK, historically an opponent of that cooperation, gave further hope of success. At a rally in Bavaria, Angela Merkel argued that: “The times in which we could completely depend on others are, to a certain extent, over ... I’ve experienced that in the last few days. We Europeans truly have to take our fate into our own hands.” In late 2016,

2700-475: The overall organisation and functioning, ensuring the implementation of guidelines and decisions and chairing ministerial meetings of the Steering Board. Javier Solana was the inaugural head of the EDA, a position which he held from 2004 to 2009. EDA's Steering Board is the agency's decision-making body. The Steering Board is composed of the defence ministers of participating Member States together with

2754-476: The provisions of Article 43. Those states shall notify their intention to the Council and to the High Representative . The Council then adopts, by qualified majority a decision establishing PESCO and determining the list of participating Member States. Any other member state that fulfills the criteria and wishes to participate can join the PESCO following the same procedure, but in the voting for

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2808-631: The remaining two bodies other than agencies, decentralised bodies or joint undertakings, established as EU juridical persons through secondary legislation of the EU/Euratom. Permanent Structured Cooperation Together with the Coordinated Annual Review on Defence (CARD), the European Defence Fund and the Military Planning and Conduct Capability (MPCC) it forms a comprehensive defence package for

2862-505: The threshold. On 7 September 2017, an agreement was made between EU foreign affairs ministers to move forward with PESCO with 10 initial projects. The agreement was signed on 13 November by 23 of the 28 member states. Ireland and Portugal notified the High Representative and the Council of the European Union of their desire to join PESCO on 7 December 2017 and PESCO was activated by the 25 states on 11 December 2017 with

2916-676: Was about building capabilities and giving a post-Brexit signal of unity, whereas France was focused on operations and looking for help for its overstretched African deployments. Their compromise was to re-imagine PESCO as a process. PESCO would be inclusive, but not all states had to take part in all projects and progress would be phased allowing the development of new, common capabilities without having to resolve larger differences on end-goals first. Further, states would not need to already have capabilities, but merely pledge to work towards them. This allowed France's idea of improving military capabilities without shutting out states who did not already attain

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