106-430: Astrobiology (also xenology or exobiology ) is a scientific field within the life and environmental sciences that studies the origins , early evolution , distribution, and future of life in the universe by investigating its deterministic conditions and contingent events. As a discipline, astrobiology is founded on the premise that life may exist beyond Earth. Research in astrobiology comprises three main areas:
212-461: A sun -like star, however with developments within extremophile research contemporary astrobiological research often focuses on identifying environments that have the potential to support life based on the availability of an energy source, such as the presence of volcanic activity on a planet or moon that could provide a source of heat and energy. It is important to note that these assumptions are based on our current understanding of life on Earth and
318-470: A Harsh Mistress as "unquestionably one of the three or four most influential libertarian novels of the last century". Heinlein did not publish Stranger in a Strange Land until some time after it was written, and the themes of free love and radical individualism are prominently featured in his long-unpublished first novel, For Us, the Living: A Comedy of Customs . The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress tells of
424-565: A Strange Land ) to 1973 ( Time Enough for Love ), Heinlein explored some of his most important themes, such as individualism , libertarianism , and free expression of physical and emotional love. Three novels from this period, Stranger in a Strange Land , The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress , and Time Enough for Love , won the Libertarian Futurist Society 's Prometheus Hall of Fame Award , designed to honor classic libertarian fiction. Jeff Riggenbach described The Moon Is
530-669: A Strange Land ) to write and publish a book exploring ideas of civic virtue, initially serialized as Starship Soldiers . In 1959, his novel (now entitled Starship Troopers ) was considered by the editors and owners of Scribner's to be too controversial for one of its prestige lines, and it was rejected. Heinlein found another publisher ( Putnam ), feeling himself released from the constraints of writing novels for children. He had told an interviewer that he did not want to do stories that merely added to categories defined by other works. Rather he wanted to do his own work, stating that: "I want to do my own stuff, my own way". He would go on to write
636-571: A Strange Land , Starship Troopers (which helped mold the space marine and mecha archetypes) and The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress . His work sometimes had controversial aspects, such as plural marriage in The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress , militarism in Starship Troopers and technologically competent women characters who were formidable, yet often stereotypically feminine—such as Friday . Heinlein used his science fiction as
742-412: A controversial work and his personal riposte to leftists calling for President Dwight D. Eisenhower to stop nuclear testing in 1958. "The 'Patrick Henry' ad shocked 'em", he wrote many years later of the campaign. " Starship Troopers outraged 'em." Starship Troopers is a coming-of-age story about duty, citizenship, and the role of the military in society. The book portrays a society in which suffrage
848-642: A few weeks of graduate classes in mathematics and physics at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), but he soon quit, either because of his ill-health or because of a desire to enter politics. Heinlein supported himself at several occupations, including real estate sales and silver mining , but for some years found money in short supply. Heinlein was active in Upton Sinclair 's socialist End Poverty in California movement (EPIC) in
954-406: A life-threatening attack of peritonitis , recovery from which required more than two years, and treatment of which required multiple transfusions of Heinlein's rare blood type, A2 negative . As soon as he was well enough to write again, he began work on Time Enough for Love (1973), which introduced many of the themes found in his later fiction. In the mid-1970s, Heinlein wrote two articles for
1060-480: A matter of principle. The novels that Heinlein wrote for a young audience are commonly called "the Heinlein juveniles", and they feature a mixture of adolescent and adult themes. Many of the issues that he takes on in these books have to do with the kinds of problems that adolescents experience. His protagonists are usually intelligent teenagers who have to make their way in the adult society they see around them. On
1166-568: A military academy. When Heinlein graduated from Kansas City Central High School in 1924, he was initially prevented from attending the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis because his older brother Rex was a student there, and at the time, regulations discouraged multiple family members from attending the academy simultaneously. He instead matriculated at Kansas City Community College and began vigorously petitioning Missouri Senator James A. Reed for an appointment to
SECTION 10
#17327808059641272-799: A modern version of a waterbed in his novel Stranger in a Strange Land . Heinlein, born on July 7, 1907, to Rex Ivar Heinlein (an accountant) and Bam Lyle Heinlein, in Butler, Missouri , was the third of seven children. He was a sixth-generation German-American ; a family tradition had it that Heinleins fought in every American war, starting with the War of Independence . He spent his childhood in Kansas City, Missouri . The outlook and values of this time and place (in his own words, "The Bible Belt ") had an influence on his fiction, especially in his later works, as he drew heavily upon his childhood in establishing
1378-538: A publisher, Scribner's , that began publishing a Heinlein juvenile once a year for the Christmas season. Eight of these books were illustrated by Clifford Geary in a distinctive white-on-black scratchboard style. Some representative novels of this type are Have Space Suit—Will Travel , Farmer in the Sky , and Starman Jones . Many of these were first published in serial form under other titles, e.g., Farmer in
1484-435: A radio series, and a board game have been derived more or less directly from his work. He wrote a screenplay for one of the films. Heinlein edited an anthology of other writers' SF short stories. Three nonfiction books and two poems have been published posthumously. For Us, the Living: A Comedy of Customs was published posthumously in 2003; Variable Star , written by Spider Robinson based on an extensive outline by Heinlein,
1590-607: A revolution in which young students are involved; his editor demanded substantial changes in this book's discussion of topics such as the use of weapons by children and the misidentified sex of the Martian character. Heinlein was always aware of the editorial limitations put in place by the editors of his novels and stories, and while he observed those restrictions on the surface, was often successful in introducing ideas not often seen in other authors' juvenile SF. In 1957, James Blish wrote that one reason for Heinlein's success "has been
1696-410: A role in the emergence of life. List of life sciences This list of life sciences comprises the branches of science that involve the scientific study of life – such as microorganisms , plants, and animals including human beings . This science is one of the two major branches of natural science , the other being physical science , which is concerned with non-living matter. Biology
1802-426: A series of challenging books that redrew the boundaries of science fiction, including Stranger in a Strange Land (1961) and The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress (1966). Beginning in 1970, Heinlein had a series of health crises, broken by strenuous periods of activity in his hobby of stonemasonry : in a private correspondence, he referred to that as his "usual and favorite occupation between books". The decade began with
1908-726: A seven-year hiatus brought on by poor health, Heinlein produced five new novels in the period from 1980 ( The Number of the Beast ) to 1987 ( To Sail Beyond the Sunset ). These books have a thread of common characters and time and place. They most explicitly communicated Heinlein's philosophies and beliefs, and many long, didactic passages of dialog and exposition deal with government, sex, and religion. These novels are controversial among his readers and one critic, David Langford , has written about them very negatively. Heinlein's four Hugo awards were all for books written before this period. Most of
2014-579: A strong influence on his character and writing. In 1929, he graduated from the Naval Academy with the equivalent of a bachelor of arts in engineering. (At that time, the Academy did not confer degrees.) He ranked fifth in his class academically but with a class standing of 20th of 243 due to disciplinary demerits. The U.S. Navy commissioned him as an ensign shortly after his graduation. He advanced to lieutenant junior grade in 1931 while serving aboard
2120-407: A travelogue of their first around-the-world tour in 1954, Tramp Royale . The novel Podkayne of Mars, which had been edited against Heinlein's wishes in their original release, was reissued with the original ending. Stranger In a Strange Land was originally published in a shorter form, but both the long and short versions are now simultaneously available in print. Heinlein's archive is housed by
2226-618: A war of independence waged by the Lunar penal colonies, with significant comments from a major character, Professor La Paz, regarding the threat posed by government to individual freedom. Although Heinlein had previously written a few short stories in the fantasy genre, during this period he wrote his first fantasy novel, Glory Road . In Stranger in a Strange Land and I Will Fear No Evil , he began to mix hard science with fantasy, mysticism, and satire of organized religion. Critics William H. Patterson, Jr., and Andrew Thornton believe that this
SECTION 20
#17327808059642332-426: A way to explore provocative social and political ideas and to speculate how progress in science and engineering might shape the future of politics, race, religion, and sex. Within the framework of his science-fiction stories, Heinlein repeatedly addressed certain social themes: the importance of individual liberty and self-reliance , the nature of sexual relationships, the obligation individuals owe to their societies,
2438-403: A writer, and finds love with a female character. The 1982 novel Friday , a more conventional adventure story (borrowing a character and backstory from the earlier short story Gulf , also containing suggestions of connection to The Puppet Masters ) continued a Heinlein theme of expecting what he saw as the continued disintegration of Earth's society, to the point where the title character
2544-591: Is a common molecule that provides an excellent environment for the formation of complicated carbon-based molecules, and is generally considered necessary for life as we know it to exist. Thus, astrobiological research presumes that extraterrestrial life similarly depends upon access to liquid water, and often focuses on identifying environments that have the potential to support liquid water. Some researchers posit environments of water- ammonia mixtures as possible solvents for hypothetical types of biochemistry . Environmental stability : Where organisms adaptively evolve to
2650-486: Is at sea level . Robert and Virginia designed and built a new residence, circular in shape, in the adjacent village of Bonny Doon . Ginny undoubtedly served as a model for many of his intelligent, fiercely independent female characters. She was a chemist and rocket test engineer , and held a higher rank in the Navy than Heinlein himself. She was also an accomplished college athlete , earning four letters. In 1953–1954,
2756-507: Is conducted utilising the methodology of planetary and environmental science , especially atmospheric science , for astrobiological applications, and is often conducted through remote sensing and in situ missions. Astrobiology also concerns the study of the origin and early evolution of life on Earth to try to understand the conditions that are necessary for life to form on other planets. This research seeks to understand how life emerged from non-living matter and how it evolved to become
2862-523: Is considered to have a narrow scope limited to search of life external to Earth. Another associated term is xenobiology , from the Greek ξένος, "foreign"; βίος , "life"; and -λογία, "study", coined by American science fiction writer Robert Heinlein in his work The Star Beast ; xenobiology is now used in a more specialised sense, referring to 'biology based on foreign chemistry', whether of extraterrestrial or terrestrial (typically synthetic) origin. While
2968-530: Is earned by demonstrated willingness to place society's interests before one's own, at least for a short time and often under onerous circumstances, in government service; in the case of the protagonist, this was military service. Later, in Expanded Universe , Heinlein said that it was his intention in the novel that service could include positions outside strictly military functions such as teachers, police officers, and other government positions. This
3074-419: Is presented in the novel as an outgrowth of the failure of unearned suffrage government and as a very successful arrangement. In addition, the franchise was only awarded after leaving the assigned service; thus those serving their terms—in the military, or any other service—were excluded from exercising any franchise. Career military were completely disenfranchised until retirement. From about 1961 ( Stranger in
3180-436: Is simply an expression of Heinlein's longstanding philosophical opposition to positivism . Heinlein stated that he was influenced by James Branch Cabell in taking this new literary direction. The penultimate novel of this period, I Will Fear No Evil , is according to critic James Gifford "almost universally regarded as a literary failure" and he attributes its shortcomings to Heinlein's near-death from peritonitis . After
3286-576: Is the overall natural science that studies life, with the other life sciences as its sub-disciplines. Some life sciences focus on a specific type of organism. For example, zoology is the study of animals, while botany is the study of plants. Other life sciences focus on aspects common to all or many life forms, such as anatomy and genetics . Some focus on the micro-scale (e.g. molecular biology , biochemistry ) other on larger scales (e.g. cytology , immunology , ethology , pharmacy, ecology). Another major branch of life sciences involves understanding
Astrobiology - Misplaced Pages Continue
3392-558: The Britannica Compton Yearbook . He and Ginny crisscrossed the country helping to reorganize blood donation in the United States in an effort to assist the system which had saved his life. At science fiction conventions to receive his autograph, fans would be asked to co-sign with Heinlein a beautifully embellished pledge form he supplied stating that the recipient agrees that they will donate blood . He
3498-525: The Arecibo message , and computational approaches to detecting and deciphering 'natural' language communication. While some high-profile scientists, such as Carl Sagan , have advocated the transmission of messages, theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking warned against it, suggesting that aliens may raid Earth for its resources. Emerging astrobiological research concerning the study of the origin and early evolution of life on Earth utilises methodologies within
3604-443: The extremophiles populating austere environments on Earth, like volcanic and deep sea environments. Research within this topic is conducted utilising the methodology of the geosciences, especially geobiology , for astrobiological applications. The search for biosignatures involves the identification of signs of past or present life in the form of organic compounds , isotopic ratios, or microbial fossils. Research within this topic
3710-545: The mind – neuroscience . Life sciences discoveries are helpful in improving the quality and standard of life and have applications in health, agriculture, medicine, and the pharmaceutical and food science industries. For example, it has provided information on certain diseases which has overall aided in the understanding of human health. Robert Heinlein Robert Anson Heinlein ( / ˈ h aɪ n l aɪ n / ; July 7, 1907 – May 8, 1988)
3816-854: The 1941 Worldcon , held in Denver. During World War II , Heinlein was employed by the Navy as a civilian aeronautical engineer at the Navy Aircraft Materials Center at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard in Pennsylvania . Heinlein recruited Isaac Asimov and L. Sprague de Camp to also work there. While at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyards, Asimov, Heinlein, and de Camp brainstormed unconventional approaches to kamikaze attacks, such as using sound to detect approaching planes. As
3922-540: The 1950s and 1960s with the advent of space exploration , when scientists began to seriously consider the possibility of life on other planets. In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 , the first artificial satellite, which marked the beginning of the Space Age . This event led to an increase in the study of the potential for life on other planets, as scientists began to consider the possibilities opened up by
4028-497: The ESA's Beagle 2 , which failed minutes after landing on Mars, NASA's Phoenix lander , which probed the environment for past and present planetary habitability of microbial life on Mars and researched the history of water, and NASA's Curiosity rover , currently probing the environment for past and present planetary habitability of microbial life on Mars. Astrobiological research makes a number of simplifying assumptions when studying
4134-521: The Future History on some points, while maintaining consistency in some other areas. The Future History was eventually overtaken by actual events. These discrepancies were explained, after a fashion, in his later World as Myth stories. Heinlein's first novel published as a book, Rocket Ship Galileo , was initially rejected because going to the Moon was considered too far-fetched, but he soon found
4240-478: The Heinlein mythos where unrepentant law-breakers are exiled). It appears that Heinlein at least attempted to live in a manner consistent with these ideals, even in the 1930s, and had an open relationship in his marriage to his second wife, Leslyn. He was also a nudist ; nudism and body taboos are frequently discussed in his work. At the height of the Cold War , he built a bomb shelter under his house, like
4346-613: The Heinleins voyaged around the world (mostly via ocean liners and cargo liners , as Ginny detested flying), which Heinlein described in Tramp Royale , and which also provided background material for science fiction novels set aboard spaceships on long voyages, such as Podkayne of Mars , Friday and Job: A Comedy of Justice , the latter initially being set on a cruise much as detailed in Tramp Royale . Ginny acted as
Astrobiology - Misplaced Pages Continue
4452-460: The Living: A Comedy of Customs (1939), did not see print during his lifetime, but Robert James tracked down the manuscript and it was published in 2003. Though some regard it as a failure as a novel, considering it little more than a disguised lecture on Heinlein's social theories , some readers took a very different view. In a review of it, John Clute wrote: I'm not about to suggest that if Heinlein had been able to publish [such works] openly in
4558-603: The Naval Academy. In part due to the influence of the Pendergast machine , the Naval Academy admitted him in June 1925. Heinlein received his discharge from the Missouri National Guard as a staff sergeant. Reed later told Heinlein that he had received 100 letters of recommendation for nomination to the Naval Academy, 50 for other candidates and 50 for Heinlein. Heinlein's experience in the U.S. Navy exerted
4664-564: The Reagan SDI spring 1983 speech. Asked to appear before a Joint Committee of the United States Congress that year, he testified on his belief that spin-offs from space technology were benefiting the infirm and the elderly. Heinlein's surgical treatment re-energized him, and he wrote five novels from 1980 until he died in his sleep from emphysema and heart failure on May 8, 1988. In 1995, Spider Robinson wrote
4770-529: The Sky was published as Satellite Scout in the Boy Scout magazine Boys' Life . There has been speculation that Heinlein's intense obsession with his privacy was due at least in part to the apparent contradiction between his unconventional private life and his career as an author of books for children. However, For Us, the Living explicitly discusses the political importance Heinlein attached to privacy as
4876-547: The Solar System. In the 1960s-1970s, NASA established the Viking program , which was the first US mission to land on Mars and search for metabolic signs of present life; the results were inconclusive. In the 1980s and 1990s, the field began to expand and diversify as new discoveries and technologies emerged. The discovery of microbial life in extreme environments on Earth, such as deep-sea hydrothermal vents, helped to clarify
4982-649: The Special Collections department of McHenry Library at the University of California at Santa Cruz . The collection includes manuscript drafts, correspondence, photographs and artifacts. A substantial portion of the archive has been digitized and it is available online through the Robert A. and Virginia Heinlein Archives. Heinlein published 32 novels, 59 short stories, and 16 collections during his life. Nine films, two television series, several episodes of
5088-409: The atmospheres of planets : Scientists are studying the potential for life to exist in the atmospheres of planets, with a focus on the study of the physical and chemical conditions necessary for such life to exist, namely the detection of organic molecules and biosignature gases; for example, the study of the possibility of life in the atmospheres of exoplanets that orbit red dwarfs and the study of
5194-408: The biosphere : Scientists are studying the ways in which human activities, such as deforestation, pollution, and the introduction of invasive species, are affecting the biosphere and the long-term survival of life on Earth. Long-term preservation of life : Researchers are exploring ways to preserve samples of life on Earth for long periods of time, such as cryopreservation and genomic preservation, in
5300-409: The building blocks of life- amino acids, nucleotides, and lipids- and how these molecules could have formed spontaneously under early Earth conditions. The study of impact events : Scientists are investigating the potential role of impact events- especially meteorites- in the delivery of water and organic molecules to early Earth. The study of the primordial soup : Researchers are investigating
5406-727: The commander of the U.S. Navy's first modern aircraft carrier. Heinlein also served as gunnery officer aboard the destroyer USS Roper in 1933 and 1934, reaching the rank of lieutenant. His brother, Lawrence Heinlein, served in the U.S. Army, the U.S. Air Force, and the Missouri National Guard , reaching the rank of major general in the National Guard. In 1929, Heinlein married Elinor Curry of Kansas City. However, their marriage lasted only about one year. His second marriage, to Leslyn MacDonald (1904–1981) in 1932, lasted 15 years. MacDonald was, according to
SECTION 50
#17327808059645512-399: The conditions and ingredients that were present on the early Earth that could have led to the formation of the first living organisms, such as the presence of water and organic molecules, and how these ingredients could have led to the formation of the first living organisms. This includes the role of water in the formation of the first cells and in catalysing chemical reactions. The study of
5618-650: The conditions of the environments in which they reside, environmental stability is considered necessary for life to exist. This presupposes the necessity of a stable temperature , pressure, and radiation levels; resultantly, astrobiological research focuses on planets orbiting Sun -like red dwarf stars . This is because very large stars have relatively short lifetimes, meaning that life might not have time to emerge on planets orbiting them; very small stars provide so little heat and warmth that only planets in very close orbits around them would not be frozen solid, and in such close orbits these planets would be tidally locked to
5724-500: The conditions under which it can exist. As our understanding of life and the potential for it to exist in different environments evolves, these assumptions may change. Astrobiological research concerning the study of habitable environments in our solar system and beyond utilises methods within the geosciences. Research within this branch primarily concerns the geobiology of organisms that can survive in extreme environments on Earth, such as in volcanic or deep sea environments, to understand
5830-543: The contest's first-prize payoff. Another Future History story, "Misfit", followed in November. Some saw Heinlein's talent and stardom from his first story, and he was quickly acknowledged as a leader of the new movement toward "social" science fiction . In California he hosted the Mañana Literary Society , a 1940–41 series of informal gatherings of new authors. He was the guest of honor at Denvention,
5936-586: The detection of biosignatures, such as the use of remote sensing to search for biosignatures in the atmosphere of exoplanets. SETI and CETI : Scientists search for signals from intelligent extraterrestrial civilizations using radio and optical telescopes within the discipline of extraterrestrial intelligence communications (CETI). CETI focuses on composing and deciphering messages that could theoretically be understood by another technological civilization. Communication attempts by humans have included broadcasting mathematical languages, pictorial systems such as
6042-420: The development of Heinlein's radical ideas about man as a social animal , including his interest in free love . The root of many themes found in his later stories can be found in this book. It also contained a large amount of material that could be considered background for his other novels. This included a detailed description of the protagonist's treatment to avoid being banished to Coventry (a lawless land in
6148-443: The diverse array of organisms we see today. Research within this topic is conducted utilising the methodology of paleosciences, especially paleobiology , for astrobiological applications. Astrobiology is a rapidly developing field with a strong interdisciplinary aspect that holds many challenges and opportunities for scientists. Astrobiology programs and research centres are present in many universities and research institutions around
6254-448: The diversity and activity of microorganisms in environments such as deep mines, subsurface soil, cold glaciers and polar ice, and high-altitude environments. Research also regards the long-term survival of life on Earth, and the possibilities and hazards of life on other planets, including: Biodiversity and ecosystem resilience : Scientists are studying how the diversity of life and the interactions between different species contribute to
6360-598: The early 1930s. He was deputy publisher of the EPIC News , which Heinlein noted "recalled a mayor, kicked out a district attorney, replaced the governor with one of our choice." When Sinclair gained the Democratic nomination for Governor of California in 1934, Heinlein worked actively in the campaign. Heinlein himself ran for the California State Assembly in 1938, but was unsuccessful. Heinlein
6466-458: The early magnetic field in protecting the Earth from harmful radiation and helping to stabilise the climate. This research has immense astrobiological implications where the subjects of current astrobiological research like Mars lack such a field. The study of prebiotic chemistry : Scientists are studying the chemical reactions that could have occurred on the early Earth that led to the formation of
SECTION 60
#17327808059646572-420: The emergence of life. The study of the early oceans : Scientists are investigating the composition and chemistry of the early oceans and how it may have played a role in the emergence of life, such as the presence of dissolved minerals that could have helped to catalyse the formation of organic molecules. The study of hydrothermal vents : Scientists are investigating the potential role of hydrothermal vents in
6678-411: The event of a catastrophic event that could wipe out most of life on Earth. Emerging astrobiological research concerning the search for planetary biosignatures of past or present extraterrestrial life utilise methodologies within planetary sciences. These include: The study of microbial life in the subsurface of Mars : Scientists are using data from Mars rover missions to study the composition of
6784-436: The feasibility of potential life existing in harsh conditions. The development of new techniques for the detection of biosignatures, such as the use of stable isotopes, also played a significant role in the evolution of the field. The contemporary landscape of astrobiology emerged in the early 21st century, focused on utilising Earth and environmental science for applications within comparate space environments. Missions included
6890-448: The first few years of his career." Alexei expresses awe in Heinlein's ability to show readers a world so drastically different from the one we live in now, yet have so many similarities. He says that "We find ourselves not only in a world other than our own, but identifying with a living, breathing individual who is operating within its context, and thinking and acting according to its terms." The first novel that Heinlein wrote, For Us,
6996-403: The first reader of his manuscripts . Isaac Asimov believed that Heinlein made a swing to the right politically at the same time he married Ginny. In 1934, Heinlein was discharged from the Navy, owing to pulmonary tuberculosis . During a lengthy hospitalization, and inspired by his own experience while bed-ridden, he developed a design for a waterbed . After his discharge, Heinlein attended
7102-415: The first science fiction writer to break out of the " pulp ghetto ". In 1950, the movie Destination Moon —the documentary-like film for which he had written the story and scenario, co-written the script, and invented many of the effects—won an Academy Award for special effects . Heinlein created SF stories with social commentary about relationships. In The Puppet Masters , a 1951 alien invasion novel,
7208-446: The high grade of machinery which goes, today as always, into his story-telling. Heinlein seems to have known from the beginning, as if instinctively, technical lessons about fiction which other writers must learn the hard way (or often enough, never learn). He does not always operate the machinery to the best advantage, but he always seems to be aware of it." Heinlein decisively ended his juvenile novels with Starship Troopers (1959),
7314-616: The incoming Reagan administration . Members included such aerospace industry leaders as former astronaut Buzz Aldrin , General Daniel O. Graham , aerospace engineer Max Hunter and North American Rockwell VP for Space Shuttle development George Merrick. Policy recommendations from the Council included ballistic missile defense concepts which were later transformed into what was called the Strategic Defense Initiative . Heinlein assisted with Council contribution to
7420-467: The influence of organized religion on culture and government, and the tendency of society to repress nonconformist thought. He also speculated on the influence of space travel on human cultural practices. Heinlein was heavily influenced by the visionary writers and philosophers of his day. William H. Patterson Jr, writing in Robert A. Heinlein: In Dialogue with his Century, states that by 1930, Heinlein
7526-673: The limits of life, and the conditions under which life might be able to survive on other planets. This includes, but is not limited to: Deep-sea extremophiles : Researchers are studying organisms that live in the extreme environments of deep-sea hydrothermal vents and cold seeps. These organisms survive in the absence of sunlight, and some are able to survive in high temperatures and pressures, and use chemical energy instead of sunlight to produce food. Desert extremophiles : Researchers are studying organisms that can survive in extreme dry, high temperature conditions, such as in deserts. Microbes in extreme environments : Researchers are investigating
7632-472: The necessary components for planetary habitability. Carbon and Organic Compounds : Carbon is the fourth most abundant element in the universe and the energy required to make or break a bond is at just the appropriate level for building molecules which are not only stable, but also reactive. The fact that carbon atoms bond readily to other carbon atoms allows for the building of extremely long and complex molecules. As such, astrobiological research presumes that
7738-526: The new aircraft carrier USS Lexington , where he worked in radio communications —a technology then still in its earlier stages. The captain of this carrier, Ernest J. King , later served as the Chief of Naval Operations and Commander-in-Chief, U.S. Fleet during World War II . Military historians frequently interviewed Heinlein during his later years and asked him about Captain King and his service as
7844-513: The new technology of space exploration. In 1959, NASA funded its first exobiology project, and in 1960, NASA founded the Exobiology Program, now one of four main elements of NASA's current Astrobiology Program. In 1971, NASA funded Project Cyclops , part of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence , to search radio frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum for interstellar communications transmitted by extraterrestrial life outside
7950-501: The next few months, he became more and more exhausted, and his health again began to decline. The problem was determined to be a blocked carotid artery , and he had one of the earliest known carotid bypass operations to correct it. In 1980, Robert Heinlein was a member of the Citizen's Advisory Council on National Space Policy , chaired by Jerry Pournelle , which met at the home of SF writer Larry Niven to write space policy papers for
8056-484: The novel Variable Star based on an outline and notes created by Heinlein. Heinlein's posthumously published nonfiction includes a selection of correspondence and notes edited into a somewhat autobiographical examination of his career, published in 1989 under the title Grumbles from the Grave by his wife, Virginia; his book on practical politics written in 1946 and published as Take Back Your Government in 1992; and
8162-477: The novels from this period are recognized by critics as forming an offshoot from the Future History series and are referred to by the term World as Myth . The tendency toward authorial self-reference begun in Stranger in a Strange Land and Time Enough for Love becomes even more evident in novels such as The Cat Who Walks Through Walls , whose first-person protagonist is a disabled military veteran who becomes
8268-529: The one featured in Farnham's Freehold . After For Us, the Living , Heinlein began selling (to magazines) first short stories, then novels, set in a Future History , complete with a time line of significant political, cultural, and technological changes. A chart of the future history was published in the May 1941 issue of Astounding . Over time, Heinlein wrote many novels and short stories that deviated freely from
8374-453: The origin of life, as these environments may have provided the energy and chemical building blocks needed for its emergence. The study of plate tectonics : Scientists are investigating the role of plate tectonics in creating a diverse range of environments on the early Earth. The study of the early biosphere : Researchers are investigating the diversity and activity of microorganisms in the early Earth, and how these organisms may have played
8480-466: The pages of Astounding in 1939, SF would have gotten the future right; I would suggest, however, that if Heinlein, and his colleagues, had been able to publish adult SF in Astounding and its fellow journals, then SF might not have done such a grotesquely poor job of prefiguring something of the flavor of actually living here at the onset of 2004. For Us, the Living was intriguing as a window into
8586-400: The palaeosciences. These include: The study of the early atmosphere : Researchers are investigating the role of the early atmosphere in providing the right conditions for the emergence of life, such as the presence of gases that could have helped to stabilise the climate and the formation of organic molecules. The study of the early magnetic field : Researchers are investigating the role of
8692-746: The point of view character Sam persuades fellow operative Mary to marry him. When they go to the county clerk, they are offered a variety of marriage possibilities; “Term, renewable or lifetime”, as short as six months or as long as forever. Also, he embarked on a series of juvenile novels for the Charles Scribner's Sons publishing company that went from 1947 through 1959, at the rate of one book each autumn, in time for Christmas presents to teenagers. He also wrote for Boys' Life in 1952. Heinlein used topical materials throughout his juvenile series beginning in 1947, but in 1958 he interrupted work on The Heretic (the working title of Stranger in
8798-432: The potential for extraterrestrial life, especially intelligent life, has been explored throughout human history within philosophy and narrative, the question is a verifiable hypothesis and thus a valid line of scientific inquiry; planetary scientist David Grinspoon calls it a field of natural philosophy, grounding speculation on the unknown in known scientific theory. The modern field of astrobiology can be traced back to
8904-603: The potential for microbial life in the upper atmosphere of Venus. Telescopes and remote sensing of exoplanets : The discovery of thousands of exoplanets has opened up new opportunities for the search for biosignatures. Scientists are using telescopes such as the James Webb Space Telescope and the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite to search for biosignatures on exoplanets. They are also developing new techniques for
9010-439: The resilience of ecosystems and their ability to recover from disturbances. Climate change and extinction : Researchers are investigating the impacts of climate change on different species and ecosystems, and how they may lead to extinction or adaptation. This includes the evolution of Earth's climate and geology, and their potential impact on the habitability of the planet in the future, especially for humans. Human impact on
9116-427: The role of minerals : Scientists are investigating the role of minerals like clay in catalysing the formation of organic molecules, thus playing a role in the emergence of life on Earth. The study of the role of energy and electricity : Scientists are investigating the potential sources of energy and electricity that could have been available on the early Earth, and their role in the formation of organic molecules, thus
9222-478: The science-fiction genre, and on modern culture more generally. Heinlein became one of the first American science-fiction writers to break into mainstream magazines such as The Saturday Evening Post in the late 1940s. He was one of the best-selling science-fiction novelists for many decades, and he, Isaac Asimov , and Arthur C. Clarke are often considered the "Big Three" of English-language science fiction authors. Notable Heinlein works include Stranger in
9328-599: The search for extraterrestrial life and the study of the potential for life to exist on other planets. In the 1960s and 1970s, NASA began its astrobiology pursuits within the Viking program , which was the first US mission to land on Mars and search for signs of life . This mission, along with other early space exploration missions, laid the foundation for the development of astrobiology as a discipline. Regarding habitable environments , astrobiology investigates potential locations beyond Earth that could support life, such as Mars , Europa , and exoplanets , through research into
9434-583: The setting and cultural atmosphere in works like Time Enough for Love and To Sail Beyond the Sunset . The 1910 appearance of Halley's Comet inspired the young child's life-long interest in astronomy. In January 1924, the sixteen year old Heinlein lied about his age to enlist in Company C, 110th Engineer Regiment , of the Missouri National Guard , in Kansas City. His family could not afford to send Heinlein to college, so he sought an appointment to
9540-421: The star; whereas the long lifetimes of red dwarfs could allow the development of habitable environments on planets with thick atmospheres. This is significant as red dwarfs are extremely common. ( See also : Habitability of red dwarf systems ). Energy source : It is assumed that any life elsewhere in the universe would also require an energy source. Previously, it was assumed that this would necessarily be from
9646-461: The study of habitable environments in the Solar System and beyond, the search for planetary biosignatures of past or present extraterrestrial life, and the study of the origin and early evolution of life on Earth. The field of astrobiology has its origins in the 20th century with the advent of space exploration and the discovery of exoplanets . Early astrobiology research focused on
9752-509: The subsurface of Mars , searching for biosignatures of past or present microbial life. The study of liquid bodies on icy moons : Discoveries of surface and subsurface bodies of liquid on moons such as Europa , Titan and Enceladus showed possible habitability zones, making them viable targets for the search for extraterrestrial life. As of September 2024, missions like Europa Clipper and Dragonfly are planned to search for biosignatures within these environments. The study of
9858-445: The surface, they are simple tales of adventure, achievement, and dealing with stupid teachers and jealous peers. Heinlein was a vocal proponent of the notion that juvenile readers were far more sophisticated and able to handle more complex or difficult themes than most people realized. His juvenile stories often had a maturity to them that made them readable for adults. Red Planet , for example, portrays some subversive themes, including
9964-441: The testimony of Heinlein's Navy friend, Rear Admiral Cal Laning , "astonishingly intelligent, widely read, and extremely liberal, though a registered Republican ", while Isaac Asimov later recalled that Heinlein was, at the time, "a flaming liberal ". (See section: Politics of Robert Heinlein .) At the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard , Heinlein met and befriended a chemical engineer named Virginia "Ginny" Gerstenfeld . After
10070-667: The town of Raton, New Mexico . Soon thereafter, they set up housekeeping in the Broadmoor district of Colorado Springs, Colorado , in a house that Heinlein and his wife designed. As the area was newly developed, they were allowed to choose their own house number, 1776 Mesa Avenue. The design of the house was featured in Popular Mechanics . They remained married until Heinlein's death. In 1965, after various chronic health problems of Virginia's were traced back to altitude sickness , they moved to Santa Cruz, California , which
10176-472: The vast majority of life forms in the Milky Way galaxy are based on carbon chemistries , as are all life forms on Earth. However, theoretical astrobiology entertains the potential for other organic molecular bases for life, thus astrobiological research often focuses on identifying environments that have the potential to support life based on the presence of organic compounds. Liquid water : Liquid water
10282-501: The war wound down in 1945, Heinlein began to re-evaluate his career. The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , along with the outbreak of the Cold War , galvanized him to write nonfiction on political topics. In addition, he wanted to break into better-paying markets. He published four influential short stories for The Saturday Evening Post magazine, leading off, in February 1947, with " The Green Hills of Earth ". That made him
10388-415: The war, her engagement having fallen through, she attended UCLA for doctoral studies in chemistry , and while there reconnected with Heinlein. As his second wife's alcoholism gradually spun out of control, Heinlein moved out and the couple filed for divorce . Heinlein's friendship with Virginia turned into a relationship and on October 21, 1948—shortly after the decree nisi came through—they married in
10494-625: The world, and space agencies like NASA and ESA have dedicated departments and programs for astrobiology research. The term astrobiology was first proposed by the Russian astronomer Gavriil Tikhov in 1953. It is etymologically derived from the Greek ἄστρον , "star"; βίος , "life"; and -λογία , -logia , "study". A close synonym is exobiology from the Greek Έξω, "external"; βίος , "life"; and -λογία , -logia , "study", coined by American molecular biologist Joshua Lederberg ; exobiology
10600-475: Was a progressive liberal who had spent some time in the open sexuality climate of New York’s Jazz Age Greenwich Village . Heinlein believed that some level of socialism was inevitable and was already occurring in America. He was absorbing the social concepts of writers such as H.G. Wells and Upton Sinclair . He adopted many of the progressive social beliefs of his day and projected them forward. Heinlein
10706-551: Was an American science fiction author, aeronautical engineer , and naval officer . Sometimes called the "dean of science fiction writers", he was among the first to emphasize scientific accuracy in his fiction, and was thus a pioneer of the subgenre of hard science fiction . His published works, both fiction and non-fiction, express admiration for competence and emphasize the value of critical thinking . His plots often posed provocative situations which challenged conventional social mores . His work continues to have an influence on
10812-783: Was named the first Science Fiction Writers Grand Master in 1974. Four of his novels won Hugo Awards . In addition, fifty years after publication, seven of his works were awarded " Retro Hugos "—awards given retrospectively for works that were published before the Hugo Awards came into existence. In his fiction, Heinlein coined terms that have become part of the English language, including grok , waldo and speculative fiction , as well as popularizing existing terms like " TANSTAAFL ", " pay it forward ", and " space marine ". He also anticipated mechanical computer-aided design with "Drafting Dan" in his novel The Door into Summer and described
10918-491: Was published in September 2006. Four collections have been published posthumously. Heinlein began his career as a writer of stories for Astounding Science Fiction magazine, which was edited by John Campbell. The science fiction writer Frederik Pohl has described Heinlein as "that greatest of Campbell-era sf writers". Isaac Asimov said that, from the time of his first story, the science fiction world accepted that Heinlein
11024-624: Was running as a left-wing Democrat in a conservative district, and he never made it past the Democratic primary. While not destitute after the campaign—he had a small disability pension from the Navy—Heinlein turned to writing to pay off his mortgage. His first published story, " Life-Line ", was printed in the August 1939 issue of Astounding Science Fiction . Originally written for a contest, it sold to Astounding for significantly more than
11130-402: Was the best science fiction writer in existence, adding that he would hold this title through his lifetime. Alexei and Cory Panshin noted that Heinlein's impact was immediately felt. In 1940, the year after selling 'Life-Line' to Campbell, he wrote three short novels, four novelettes, and seven short stories. They went on to say that "No one ever dominated the science fiction field as Bob did in
11236-521: Was the guest of honor at the Worldcon in 1976 for the third time at MidAmeriCon in Kansas City, Missouri . At that Worldcon, Heinlein hosted a blood drive and donors' reception to thank all those who had helped save lives. Beginning in 1977, and including an episode while vacationing in Tahiti in early 1978, he had episodes of reversible neurologic dysfunction due to transient ischemic attacks . Over
#963036