97-568: The Australian Trade and Investment Commission , or Austrade ( / ˈ ɒ z ˌ t r eɪ d / OZ -trayd ), is the Australian Government's trade, investment and education promotion agency which was also given responsibility for tourism policy, programs and research from 2013. Austrade was established under the Australian Trade Commission Act 1985. It is a non-corporate Commonwealth entity under
194-496: A cabinet reshuffle . Cabinet meetings are strictly private and occur once a week where vital issues are discussed and policy formulated. The cabinet is not a legal entity; it exists solely by convention. Its decisions do not in and of themselves have legal force. However, it serves as the practical expression of the Federal Executive Council , which is Australia's highest formal governmental body. In practice,
291-512: A "paternalistic vision" of "defending and reforming China." This vision defined China in terms of two struggles, first, a Chinese domestic struggle between progressive reform and feudal inertia, and the second an international struggle which pitted the "selfish imperialism" of Britain, Russia, and Japan against the supposedly benevolent policies of the United States. Over the next decades, American diplomats, missionaries, and businessmen took
388-584: A Vietnamese spy chief to secure contracts for printing banknotes. Government of Australia [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The Australian Government , also known as the Commonwealth Government or simply as the Federal government , is the national executive government of Australia, a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy . The executive consists of the prime minister and other cabinet ministers that currently have
485-521: A blueprint for developing commissions under limited resources and personnel as well as being absent from a sprawling bureaucracy. Before Lindsay MacAlister ( who was a former GE Australia Manager ) was appointed as the managing director of Austrade, most of the employees that were in the main civil servants had limited or no business understanding. His appointment marked a significant change in the commission's culture. However, there have been difficulties in managing Austrade in that its "effectiveness depends on
582-523: A business in Australia. Austrade also assists international buyers to source goods and services from Australia or to identify strategic Australian business partners. Areas of development such as mining which has historically elevated Australia's economy continue to be a main policy objective for Austrade moving forward. Austrade's role includes the international marketing and promotion of Australian education and training. Austrade co-ordinates and promotes
679-456: A correspondent with offshore initiatives with regions such as Latin America and South Asia describes how an extensive review found that Austrade was too ambitious in priorities and did not direct engage enough with growth markets. Brewer (2010) says that Austrade's focus on tackling large economies led to the program employing “aspirational” targets that were not tangible within an organisation in
776-508: A fee-for-service basis. Organising initiatives with other countries that share attuned roadmaps to growth has been necessary in expanding Austrade's global footprint. Landis (2012) explains Austrade's new streamlined structure following reforms due to the difficulty exporters faced accessing foreign markets. Introduced in 2011, Austrade has moved from regional to global management with oversight of its international network based in Sydney. Landis,
873-527: A global network of offices, Austrade aims to assist Australian companies to connect with buyers in offshore markets, attract foreign direct investment into Australia, and promote Australia's education sector internationally. In Australia, Austrade's services and programs are delivered through a national network of offices and TradeStart locations in metropolitan and regional areas, operating in partnership with Australian state and territory governments, industry associations and regional development bodies. Austrade
970-606: A global scale. According to Ferris in Chung and Mascitelli (2017), under these goals; the Australian economy and many around the world have naturally shifted their dependence on agriculture and slowly transitioned to manufacturing, following a similar journey to China's economic breakthrough. Former managing director of Austrade Charles Jamieson initiated Emissaries of trade: a history of the Australian trade commissioner service in 2001. The objective of this independent research report
1067-744: A more contemporary and sustainable Austrade and to deliver greater value for the business community and for the Government". On 23 March 2016, the Trade Legislation Amendment Act (No. 1) 2016 was passed, which amended various acts to facilitate the agency's name change from "Australian Trade Commission" to "Australian Trade and Investment Commission", with the governing act title also changed accordingly to "Australian Trade and Investment Commission Act 1985". Schedvin provides further historical insight in his Emissaries of trade piece on how legislation has changed over time whereby
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#17327978651651164-408: A new department. This specialisation resulted in the formation of a resources and energy sector led by former senator Peter Walsh and deputy prime minister Lionel Bowen. As the acting minister for trade, Bowen was tasked with his first economic portfolio and at the time he showed limited interest in growing the economy through trade policy. Instead, Bowen remained adamant that the political legitimacy of
1261-786: A special interest in China, many of them envisioning that China would follow the American example. However these dreams proved difficult to realize. American investments, while considerable, did not reach major proportions; the Open Door policy could not protect China against Japanese interference, first the Manchurian Incident of 1931, then the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), and Chinese leaders, while willing to seek American aid, were not willing to play
1358-570: A vision arranged by John Dawkins, former Trade Minister under the Hawke government. Austrade has allowed for countries to be economically integrated more than ever and is described as one of the most ambitious changes on the government trade promotion landscape since the creation of the Trade Commissioner Service in 1933 (Nicholls, as cited in Chung and Mascitelli, 2017, p. 417). There are four separate government entities under
1455-406: A volatile global economy. This often involves helping remove external barriers that prohibit international expansion and initiating long term trade agreements or exchange programs. There are many export sectors that Austrade pools its resources toward from mining to education. From a historical perspective, Downey (2005) details the process of nurturing Australia's export shares globally and highlights
1552-518: Is a role which exists by constitutional convention, rather than by law. They are appointed to the role by the governor-general (the representative of the monarch of Australia ). The governor-general normally appoints the parliamentary leader who commands the confidence of a majority of the members of the House of Representatives. Also by convention, the prime minister is a member of the lower house. The prime minister and their sworn ministers form
1649-515: Is executive or legislative is determined on a case-by-case basis, and involves the weighing up of various factors, rather than the application of a strict test. As most executive power is granted by statute, the executive power of the government is similarly limited to those areas in which the Commonwealth is granted the power to legislate under the constitution (primarily under section 51 ). They also retain certain powers traditionally part of
1746-790: Is made for general information which includes extensive online information, though fees may be required for specific tailored advice. Austrade provides information and advice to assist Australian companies in exporting goods and services to markets including Asia, Africa, Latin America, the Middle East and Russia. For Australian exporters and education providers, Austrade has a comprehensive mix of information and customised services to assist doing business within overseas markets and to understand foreign regulations and business practices. Historically, Austrade has concentrated most of its initiatives in North America, Western Europe and Japan due to
1843-427: Is not to be confused with the fundamental objective of Austrade in stimulating the Australian economy through trade initiatives in the form of export programs. This sentiment was the main proponent that allowed for the expansion of the commission as a substitute for more flexible tariff and exchange rate policies. An overview of Austrade's broader vision has reveals concerns have arisen regarding what exactly role Austrade
1940-435: Is responsible for the promotion, attraction and facilitation of productive foreign direct investment (FDI) into Australia, and is the first national point of contact for all investment enquiries. Services to international companies are free, comprehensive and confidential. Working in partnership with Australian state and territory governments, Austrade provides international investors with information needed to establish or expand
2037-486: Is that Menadue was an internationalist who showed a keen interest in Asian markets. Former ambassador to Japan in 1977, the time he spent there reinforced his calling for the Australian economy to open up. The timing of this although not coincidentally aligns with that of China (globally the largest Asian market) which implemented their renowned Open Door Policy in 1978 in hopes of attracting new investment ventures. Menadue
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#17327978651652134-482: Is that while legislative power involves setting down rules of general application, executive power involves applying those rules to specific situations. In practice, however, this definition is difficult to apply as many actions by executive agencies are wide-ranging, binding and conducted independently of Parliament. The executive can also be delegated legislative power through provisions allowing for statutory instruments and Henry VIII clauses . Ultimately whether power
2231-412: Is the body that formally advises the governor-general in the exercise of executive power. Decisions of the body give legal effect to decisions already deliberated at cabinet. All current and formers ministers are members of the council, although only current ministers are summoned to meetings. The governor-general usually presides at council meetings, but in his or her absence another minister nominated as
2328-571: The Constitution of Australia is the "Government of the Commonwealth". This was the name used in many early federal government publications. However, in 1965 Robert Menzies indicated his preference for the name "Australian Government" in order to prevent confusion with the new Commonwealth of Nations . The Whitlam government legislated the use of "Government of Australia" in 1973 in line with its policy of promoting national goals and aspirations. However, academic Anne Twomey argues that
2425-727: The Philippine Islands , the United States increased its Asian presence and expected to further its commercial and political interests in China. It felt threatened by other powers' much larger spheres of influence in China and worried that it might lose access to the Chinese market if it were to be partitioned. As a response, William Woodville Rockhill formulated the Open Door Policy to safeguard American business opportunities and other interests in China. On September 6, 1899, U.S. Secretary of State John Hay sent notes to
2522-749: The Public Governance, Performance and Accountability Act 2013 , and a statutory agency under the Public Service Act 1999 . Austrade is part of the Foreign Affairs and Trade portfolio. Under Austrade's corporate structure, its chief executive officer is accountable to the Federal Minister for Tourism, Trade and Investment . Mr Xavier Simonet was appointed chief executive officer of Austrade in November 2020. Through
2619-666: The Qing dynasty China after the First Opium War (1839–1842) which included most favored nation provisions designed to keep any one nation from gaining an advantage. The concept was seen at the Berlin Conference of 1885, which declared that no power could levy preferential duties in the Congo . As a concept and policy, the Open Door Policy was a principle that was never formally adopted via treaty or international law. It
2716-411: The cabinet , the key decision-making organ of the government that makes policy and decides the agenda of the government. Members of the government can exercise both legislative power (through their control of the parliament) and executive power (as ministers on behalf of the governor-general and the monarch). However, in accordance with responsible government , and to ensure accountability, actions of
2813-815: The front bench . This practice has been continued by all governments except the Whitlam government . The prime minister's power to select the ministry differs depending on their party. When the Liberal Party and its predecessors (the Nationalist Party and the United Australia Party ) have been in coalition with the National Party or its predecessor the Country Party , the leader of the junior Coalition party has had
2910-468: The royal prerogative , such as the power to declare war and enter into treaties. Finally, there exists certain "nationhood powers", implied from section 61 of the Constitution . These were defined by High Court Justice Anthony Mason , as powers "peculiarly adapted to the government of a nation and which cannot otherwise be carried on for the benefit of the nation". They have been found to include
3007-632: The vice-president of the Executive Council presides at the meeting of the council. Since 1 June 2022, the vice-president has been senator Katy Gallagher . As of 17 August 2024 , there are 16 departments of the Australian Government. Additionally, there are four departments which support the Parliament of Australia : The following corporations are prescribed by Acts of Parliament: As of March 2024 ,
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3104-472: The "Exporting for the Future" initiative whereby he lists key indicators of Australia's growth: These indicators remain relevant to Australia's continued reliance on their huge export base in sectors such as mining. Austrade provides advice to exporters on prospective markets and opportunities; on-the-ground support in target countries; trade exhibitions; and assistance in finding potential investors. No charge
3201-606: The 1930s depression which saw an unprecedented need for aggregate demand stimulation. Between 2004 and 2006, Austrade reportedly granted special access privileges and funds totalling $ 394,009 to the fraudulent company Firepower International , which also provided employment to two former senior Austrade managers in Europe and Russia. The agency denied Firepower had received special treatment. However, perceived legitimation of Firepower's activities by Austrade undoubtedly helped promote tens of millions of dollars in fraudulent share sales to
3298-410: The 20th and 21st centuries, scholars such as Christopher Layne in the neorealist school have generalized the use of the term to applications in 'political' open door policies and 'economic' open door policies of nations in general, which interact on a global or international basis. The theory of the Open Door Policy originated with British commercial practice, as reflected in treaties concluded with
3395-409: The Australian context due to its position of being a government agency that works alongside businesses with the aim of developing their international competitiveness. Historically, this relationship is considered rare due to the changing government policy stances regarding how much export orientated activity it should undergo. The broader objective of Austrade is to enable service exporters to thrive in
3492-571: The Australian public "without proper disclosure documents in breach of the Corporations Act". Possibly because of the close involvement of senior diplomats and politicians, including then prime minister John Howard and senior minister Julie Bishop , in the scandal, Austrade did not initiate prosecutions against Tim Johnston and other Firepower principals, as it had previously done against relatively minor perceived offenders such as Western Australian town planner and inventor Paul Ritter , who
3589-416: The Commonwealth government initially took over the responsibility from independent agencies in the 1920s before Austrade's official enactment in 1985. However, broader criticism emerged from commercial interests which led to the experiment being discontinued as a result of the government's inapt legislation to provide a suitable legal framework. Approximately a decade onward, it was revived in an attempt to cure
3686-673: The Federal Executive Council meets solely to endorse and give legal force to decisions already made by the cabinet. All members of the cabinet are members of the Executive Council. A senior member of the cabinet holds the office of vice-president of the Executive Council and acts as presiding officer of the Executive Council in the absence of the governor-general. The cabinet meets not only in Canberra but also in state capitals, most frequently Sydney and Melbourne. Kevin Rudd
3783-421: The Open Door Policy as a basic doctrine, and Chinese diplomats appealed to it as they sought American support, but critics pointed out that the policy had little practical effect. The term "Open Door" also describes the economic policy initiated by Deng Xiaoping in 1978 to open China to foreign businesses that wanted to invest in the country. The policy set into motion the economic transformation of China. In
3880-491: The Open Door Policy refers to the new policy announced by Deng Xiaoping in December 1978 to open the door to foreign businesses that wanted to set up in China. Special Economic Zones (SEZ) were set up in 1980 in his belief that to modernize China's industry and boost its economy, he needed to welcome foreign direct investment. Chinese economic policy then shifted to encouraging and supporting foreign trade and investment. It
3977-470: The Open Door Policy, competition continued abated among the various powers for special concessions within China for railroad rights, mining rights, loans, foreign trade ports, and so forth. On October 6, 1900, Britain and Germany signed the Yangtze Agreement to oppose the partition of China into spheres of influence. The agreement, signed by Lord Salisbury and Ambassador Paul von Hatzfeldt ,
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4074-591: The United States and Japan. There were renewed assurances that the Open Door Policy would be respected, but the United States would recognize Japan's special interests in China (the Lansing–Ishii Agreement ). The Open Door Policy had been further weakened by a series of secret treaties in 1917 between Japan and the Allied Triple Entente that promised Japan the German possessions in China after
4171-461: The United States and became the world's biggest trading nation in goods, with a total for imports and exports valued at US$ 4.16 trillion for the year. On 21 July 2020, Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping made a speech to a group of public and private business leaders at the entrepreneur forum in Beijing. Xi emphasized that "We must gradually form a new development pattern with
4268-511: The United States policy had consistently maintained fundamental principles, "which include the doctrine of the Open Door...." Since the policy effectively hindered Chinese sovereignty, the government of the Republic of China endeavored to revise the related treaties with foreign powers in the 1920s and 1930s. However, only after the conclusion of World War II would China manage to regain its full sovereignty. In China's modern economic history,
4365-511: The average annual rate of trade expansion was above 15 percent, and a high rate of growth continued for the next decade. In 1978, its exports in the world market share was negligible and in 1998, it still had less than 2%, but by 2010, it had a world market share of 10.4% according to the World Trade Organization (WTO), with merchandise export sales of more than $ 1.5 trillion, the highest in the world. In 2013, China overtook
4462-478: The barriers preventing entry. Access to global markets is reliant on a multitude of chained issues including reputation, financial risk including market volatility, short-term contracts, loss of intellectual property and limited opportunity. Among Australian firms, foreign direct investment (FDI) has evolved into an increasingly popular solution to bypass these restrictions. Preceding Downey's view on export expansion theories, O’Byrne (2002) goes into further detail about
4559-623: The brand programs "Future Unlimited" which advertises Australian education and training institutions, and "Australia Unlimited" which promotes awareness of Australian skills and capabilities. It previously co-ordinated the "Building Brand Australia" program, a 4-year, A$ 20-million program to promote Australia's credentials as a "global citizen, global business partner and world class destination". Austrade provides information, support and grants to tourism businesses. Austrade's Tourism Research Australia provides free statistics, information and insights and can provide specific tourism research and analysis on
4656-674: The caucus regained this power in 2013. According to reporting by the Sydney Morning Herald , ministerial positions are allocated by the Left and Right factions proportionally according to their representation in the Parliament. The King is not involved with the day-to-day operations of the government, belonging (according to the Bagehot formulation) to the "dignified" rather than the "efficient" part of government. While
4753-495: The closeness of the working relationship between government – basically the trade minister – and the organisation's leadership" (Adams, as cited in Chung and Mascitelli, 2017, p. 419). Schedvin (2008) references the environment within which the Trade Commissioner Service operated changing fundamentally and permanently in the 1970s as a sign of the inevitable shift that Austrade similarly experienced. Facilitating investment, particularly within industries of potential growth lies at
4850-598: The confidence of the lower house, are uncontroversial, others are subject to much greater debate. The most notable example of their use occurring in the Dismissal of 1975. In that case, the Governor-General Sir John Kerr dismissed the prime minister and government due to his conclusion that the government had failed to secure supply. The propriety of the use of the powers during that event remain highly contested. The Federal Executive Council
4947-547: The country, which set into motion the economic transformation of modern China. With its defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), China faced an imminent threat of being partitioned and colonized by imperial powers with a presence in China (which included France, Germany, Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia). After winning the Spanish–American War of 1898, with the newly acquired territory of
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#17327978651655044-501: The department of trade was in fact in question. Jim Cairns who was the preceding minister echoed these same sentiments albeit to a much lesser extent. Bowen and many of his ministerial colleagues insisted that trade was only to fulfill the political and economic interests of the National Party. Schedvin admits that this belief has reason in a theoretical sense. Other changes in leadership of the department of trade revolved around
5141-679: The development and export of manufactured goods. This historical overview is closely related the transformation of China's economy to a heavy manufacturing based industry. With tourism being a growing and significant export, in 2013 Austrade was given the responsibility for Commonwealth Government tourism policy and programs and the Tourism Research Australia organisation was also transferred to it. Following World War II, both Doug Anthony and John McEwen who were instrumental in Austrade's rapid growth saw an opportunity to target
5238-415: The domestic internal circulation as the main body and the domestic and international dual circulations mutually promoting each other." Since then "internal circulation" became a hot word in China. Some Chinese worry that the emphasis of "internal circulation"signals returning to 1960s-era seclusion, and ending of open door policy. Scholars such as Christopher Layne in the neorealist school have generalized
5335-464: The executive power of the Commonwealth is formally vested in the monarch, the Constitution requires those powers to be exercisable by a governor-general, appointed by the monarch as their representative (but since the appointing of Sir Isaac Isaacs in 1931, always appointed according to the advice of federal ministers, rather than British ministers). Members of the government do not exercise executive power of their own accord but are instead appointed by
5432-490: The export marketing costs they incur. The scheme supports a wide range of industry sectors and products, including inbound tourism and the export of intellectual property. Established under the Australian Trade Commission Act 1985 , Austrade is a prescribed agency subject to the Financial Management and Accountability Act 1997 and the Public Service Act 1999 . Austrade operates as a statutory authority within
5529-472: The following Corporate Commonwealth entities are prescribed as Government Business Enterprises (GBEs): The following Commonwealth companies are prescribed as GBEs: Open Door Policy The Open Door Policy ( Chinese : 門戶開放政策 ) is the United States diplomatic policy established in the late 19th and early 20th century that called for a system of equal trade and investment and to guarantee
5626-403: The forefront of what Austrade is widely known for. An era of globalisation which has shifted many developing economies' primary industry (a notable example is China which transitioned from agriculture to manufacturing) has meant a focus on developing competitive industries is advised as a key growth model for any modern economy. Chung and Mascitelli highlight Austrade's unique and dynamic role in
5723-728: The framework of globalisation, Austrade has found unique expertise in assisting partner markets by providing contacts, market intelligence for individual jurisdictions and networks on the ground. Austrade provides online information on export financing and other government financial assistance programs. It also administers the Export Market Development Grant (EMDG) Scheme, the Australian Government's financial assistance program for aspiring and current exporters, which encourages small and medium-sized Australian businesses to enter into and develop export markets. Under this scheme, eligible businesses are reimbursed for part of
5820-555: The government in its executive capacity are subject to scrutiny from parliament. The Australian Government is headquartered in the executive wing of Parliament House , located in the nation's capital, Canberra , in the Australian Capital Territory . The head offices of all the federal departments are located in Canberra, along with Parliament House and the High Court . The name of the government in
5917-490: The government was also motivated by a desire to blur the differences between the Commonwealth and the states in an attempt to increase federal power. The Parliament of Australia website also notes that the name "Australian Government" is preferable in order to avoid confusion with the Commonwealth of Nations and the US federal government by those not familiar with Australia's system of government. This terminology remains preferred by
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#17327978651656014-471: The government. However, the terms Commonwealth Government and federal government are also common. In some contexts, the term "government" refers to all public agencies that exercise the power of the State , whether legislative, executive or judicial. The government's primary role, in its executive capacity, is to implement the laws passed by the parliament. However, laws are frequently drafted according to
6111-495: The governor-general as ministers, formally as the "Queen's [or King's] Ministers of State". As such, while government ministers make most major decisions in cabinet, if those decisions require the formal endorsement of the governor-general in council, those decisions do not have legal force until approved by the Federal Executive Council , which is presided over by the governor-general. Similarly, laws passed by both houses of parliament require royal assent before being enacted, as
6208-420: The interests of the executive branch as the government often also controls the legislative branch. Unlike the other two branches of government, however, membership of the executive is not clearly defined. One definition describes the executive as a pyramid, consisting of three layers. At the top stands the king, as the symbolic apex and formal repository of executive power. Below him lies a second layer made up of
6305-497: The issue of Australia's balance of payments as the forefront of broader objectives. Policy objectives were achieved whenever difficulties emerged and the result can be characterised as leakages in the economy being filled at a timely manner. The 1960s saw the establishment of a global network of offices. It is important to note that the original focus placed upon regulating instability within the balance of payments has shifted over time to boundaries beyond Austrade. The balance of payments
6402-676: The long run and that they were simply publicising unrealistic prospects. This overlocking of significant resources pooled into already established markets such as Europe and the US did more harm than good because exporters did not require Australia's help as much as sunrise industries in emerging markets. Similar to Landis, Piper (2012) outlines the obvious potential for trade and investment between Australia and Latin America. Austrade's efforts to engage with regions such as that of Latin America has been eased by an increasing number of companies realising how successful business could be conducted regionally. Within
6499-421: The major powers (France, Germany, Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia) to ask them to declare formally that they would uphold Chinese territorial and administrative integrity and they would not interfere with the free use of the treaty ports in their spheres of influence in China. The Open Door Policy stated that all nations, including the United States, could enjoy equal access to the Chinese market. Hay's logic
6596-443: The matter of harbor dues or railroad charges. The policy was accepted only grudgingly, if at all, by the major powers, and it had no legal standing or enforcement mechanism. In July 1900, as the powers contemplated intervention to put down the violently anti-foreign Boxer uprising , Hay circulated a Second Open Door Note affirming the principles. Over the next decades, American policy-makers and national figures continued to refer to
6693-962: The maturity of their economies. This has allowed for the Australian economy to engage in international trade through programs such as the Export Market Development Grants scheme, aimed at developing support for exporters by organising free trade agreements. Other initiatives include Australia International Education 2025 to bolster opportunities for international students to study abroad and the Tourism 2020 Implementation Plan which will help strengthen one of Australia's most important industries. Eligible companies may apply for an Export Market Development Grant which provides funding for small to medium exporters for eligible promotional expenses. A range of newsletters, webinars and in person events and activities are available to businesses with many strongly promoted via social media. Austrade
6790-485: The monarch is a constituent part of the Parliament. However, in all these cases, except for certain reserve powers, the King and the governor-general must follow the advice of the prime minister or other ministers in the exercise of his powers. Powers subject to the governor-general’s discretion are known as reserve powers. While certain reserve powers, such as the ability to choose the prime minister most likely to command
6887-505: The original export promotion scheme, including a segment of the Department of Trade, Trade Commissioner Service, Export Finance Insurance Corporation and the Export Market Development Grant scheme (Dawkins, as cited in Chung and Mascitelli, 2017, p. 417). Dawkins was a key proponent for focusing on markets that needed assistance and has stressed the importance of directing attention to sunrise industries in order to help them compete on
6984-444: The outer ministry. Additionally, there are also assistant ministers (formally parliamentary secretaries ), responsible for a specific policy area, reporting directly to a cabinet minister. The cabinet consists of the prime minister and senior ministers and makes most of the important policy decisions of the government. Members of the cabinet are selected by the prime minister and may be added or removed at any time, usually through
7081-781: The passive role that the Open Door implied. In 1902, the U.S. government protested that the Russian incursion into Manchuria after the Boxer Rebellion was a violation of the Open Door Policy. When Japan replaced Russia in southern Manchuria after the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) the Japanese and American governments pledged to maintain a policy of equality in Manchuria. In 1905–1907 Japan made overtures to enlarge its sphere of influence to include Fujian . Japan
7178-524: The portfolio of Foreign Affairs and Trade, its chief executive officer reporting directly to the Minister for Trade and Investment . From its establishment until 30 June 2006, Austrade was governed by a board. As a result of a report by John Uhrig AC published in June 2003, the board was replaced from 1 July 2006 by a chief executive officer. In 2011, changes were made to programs and services "to create
7275-409: The position of secretary which later became available after Jim Scully retired in late 1983. Of the candidates, John Menadue filled the position as a member with an extensive knowledge of private industry and public service. This appointment was made before globalisation took the international stage and propelled nations to take part in bilateral and multilateral trade agreements. An important observation
7372-404: The power to provide financial stimulus payments to households during a financial crisis and the power to prevent "unlawful non-citizens" from entering the country . Ministers drawn from the Australian parliament form the core of the Australian Government. A subset of these ministers form the cabinet, the de facto highest executive body of the government. Ministers not part of cabinet belong to
7469-410: The prime minister would retain the right to allocate portfolios. This practice was followed until 2007. Between 1907 and 2007, Labor prime ministers exercised a predominant influence over who was elected to Labor ministries, although the leaders of the party factions also exercised considerable influence. However, in 2007 Prime Minister Kevin Rudd , assumed the power to choose the ministry alone. Later,
7566-500: The prime minister, cabinet and other ministers who in practice lead the executive. Finally, the bottom layer includes public servants , police, government departments and independent statutory bodies who directly implement policy and laws. Executive power is also difficult to clearly define. In the British context, it was defined by John Locke as all government power not legislative or judicial in nature. The key distinction
7663-601: The right to nominate their party's members of the Coalition ministry, and to be consulted by the prime minister on the allocation of their portfolios. When Labor first held office under Chris Watson , Watson assumed the right to choose members of his cabinet. In 1907, however, the party decided that future Labor cabinets would be elected by the members of the Parliamentary Labor Party, the Caucus , and
7760-766: The successful conclusion of World War I. The subsequent realization of the promise in the 1919 Versailles Treaty angered the Chinese public and sparked the protest known as the May Fourth Movement . The Nine-Power Treaty , signed in 1922, expressly reaffirmed the Open Door Policy. In 1949, the United States State Department issued the China White Paper , a selection of official documents on United States-China relations, 1900–1949. The introductory "Letter of Transmittal," signed by Secretary of State Dean Acheson , asserted that
7857-546: The support of a majority of the members of the House of Representatives (the lower house) and also includes the departments and other executive bodies that ministers oversee. The current executive government consists of Anthony Albanese and other ministers of the Australian Labor Party (ALP), in office since the 2022 federal election . The prime minister is the head of the federal government and
7954-739: The territorial integrity of Qing China . The policy was created in U.S. Secretary of State John Hay 's Open Door Note , dated September 6, 1899, and circulated to the major European powers. In order to prevent the " carving of China like a melon ", as they were doing in Africa , the Note asked the powers to keep China open to trade with all countries on an equal basis and called upon all powers, within their spheres of influence to refrain from interfering with any treaty port or any vested interest, to permit Chinese authorities to collect tariffs on an equal basis, and to show no favors to their own nationals in
8051-471: The use of the term to applications in 'political' open door policies and 'economic' open door policies of nations in general, which interact on a global or international basis. William Appleman Williams , considered as the foremost member of the "Wisconsin School" of diplomatic history , departed from the mainstream of U.S. historiography in the 1950s by arguing that the United States was more responsible for
8148-415: Was an endorsement of the Open Door Policy. The Germans supported it because a partition of China would limit Germany to a small trading market, instead of all of China. The policy built popular sympathy for China and raised hopes for a vast "China market" and American influence in China's development. The effect of the policy was partly diplomatic, but it also reflected what the historian Michael Hunt calls
8245-404: Was common for state and colonial governments to appoint commercial agents and trade commissioners in hopes of resolving economic volatility. The election of the Hawke government in 1983 meant an inevitable change in Australia's approach toward trade. The first structural change of both the trade commissioner service and the department of trade was a resource shift from the trade portfolio to create
8342-498: Was confident that Australia "had an urban business culture that was addicted to protection. It had its back to the outside world and looked internally to the Australian market". He insisted that there was too much of a focus on the development and promotion of export markets for minerals and farm produce when there should be a focus on transitioning these respective industries or at the very minimum restructuring them. The restructuring would provide potential jobs for Australian's following
8439-472: Was established in 1986 initially tasked with coordinating and facilitating the country's export promotion schemes (Fletcher, as cited in Chung and Mascitelli, 2017, p. 417). Since then, it lies at the forefront of both Australia's bilateral and multilateral trade agreements and is also tasked with organising policies on imports. This extended role since its establishment has increased the international competitiveness of Australian businesses post globalisation,
8536-471: Was founded with high expectations and backed by a dynamic and coordinated Trade Commissioner Service. In terms of its international impact, Austrade is held to an extremely high standard for the prospective economic growth it has garnered through opportunities; especially for a small nation such as Australia. Mascitelli (2015) writes that at the time of its establishment only 137 out of 1327 staff were Trade Commissioners, outlining the fact that it has become
8633-502: Was imprisoned in the late 1980s on charges of making inappropriate export-grant applications. It has been alleged that Austrade officials knew about alleged bribes paid by officials from the Reserve Bank of Australia's Securency scandal . RBA subsidiaries were involved in bribing overseas officials so that Australia might win lucrative polymer note-printing contracts, and it has been alleged that Austrade officials knew of payments to
8730-498: Was in favour of the cabinet meeting in other places, such as major regional cities. There are Commonwealth Parliament Offices in each state capital, with those in Sydney located in 1 Bligh Street . Until 1956 all members of the ministry were members of the cabinet. The growth of the ministry in the 1940s and 1950s made this increasingly impractical, and in 1956 Robert Menzies created a two-tier ministry, with only senior ministers holding cabinet rank, also known within parliament as
8827-478: Was invoked or alluded to but never enforced as such. The policy collapsed in 1931 when the Japanese seized and kept Manchuria , despite international disapproval. Technically, the term Open Door Policy is applicable only before the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949. After Deng Xiaoping took power in 1978, the term referred to China's policy of opening up to foreign business that wanted to invest in
8924-416: Was supposedly created for. Charles Jameson, who was managing director at the time (1986) was mainly concerned that there was little to no background of the commission's history, especially when it came to preceding contemporary trade commissioners. Preceding Austrade's formation, economic prospects were under unprecedented scrutiny from high stagflation following the sharp recession from 1982 to 1983. Thus, it
9021-410: Was that American economic power would then be able to dominate the Chinese market and fend off other foreign competitors. In reply, each country tried to evade Hay's request by taking the position that it could not commit itself until the other nations had complied. However, by July 1900, Hay announced that each of the powers had granted its consent in principle. Although treaties after 1900 referred to
9118-422: Was the first to be established and showed the most rapid growth, averaging a very high growth rate of 40% per annum between 1981 and 1993, compared to the average GDP growth of 9.8% for the country as a whole. Other SEZs were set up in other parts of China. In 1978, China was ranked 32nd in the world in export volume, but by 1989, it had doubled its world trade and became the 13th exporter. Between 1978 and 1990,
9215-545: Was the turning point in China's economic fortune, which started its way on the path to becoming 'The World's Factory'. Four SEZs were initially set up in 1980: Shenzhen , Zhuhai and Shantou in Guangdong , and Xiamen in Fujian . The SEZs were strategically located near Hong Kong , Macau , and Taiwan but with a favorable tax regime and low wages to attract capital and business from these Chinese communities. Shenzhen
9312-411: Was to develop a single consolidated history of the evolution of Austrade. Austrade played a role in the production of Emissaries of trade and it was eventually published under the auspices of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Schedvin, appointed lead researcher of the case study, states that Austrade has had a lengthy and complex history. His analysis begins from fundamental trade theory where it
9409-474: Was trying to obtain French loans and also avoid the Open Door Policy. Paris provided loans on condition that Japan respect the Open Door principles and not violate China's territorial integrity. In finance, American efforts to preserve the Open Door Policy led in 1909 to the formation of an international banking consortium through which all Chinese railroad loans agreed in 1917 to another exchange of notes between
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