102-549: The Australian wine industry is one of the world's largest exporters of wine, with approximately 800 million out of the 1.2 to 1.3 billion litres produced annually exported to overseas markets. The wine industry is a significant contributor to the Australian economy through production, employment, export, and tourism. There is a $ 3.5 billion domestic market for Australian wines, with Australians consuming approximately 500 million litres annually. Norfolk Islanders are
204-591: A goods and services tax (GST) was introduced, similar to the European-style VAT . According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) seasonally adjusted estimates, the unemployment rate remained steady at 4.1% in October 2024 while the labour force participation rate decreased 0.1 points to 67.1%. The participation rate for 15- to 24-year-olds increased by 0.7 points to 71.1% while
306-470: A mixed economy . As of 2023, Australia was the 14th-largest national economy by nominal GDP ( gross domestic product ), the 19th-largest by PPP-adjusted GDP, and was the 21st-largest goods exporter and 24th-largest goods importer . Australia took the record for the longest run of uninterrupted GDP growth in the developed world with the March 2017 financial quarter . It was the 103rd quarter and
408-563: A celebratory dinner was more likely to be accompanied by an inferior French wine than a premium Australian wine. This is partly due to exchange rate fluctuations, making Australian wines appear much cheaper than French wines in the UK and hence perceived as being of poorer quality. While this situation may be somewhat mitigated by the continued rise in the Australian dollar during 2010, the stronger currency threatens to weaken Australian exports to
510-547: A centralised tax system. The legislation could not expressly prohibit state income taxes (s. 51(ii) does not curtail the power of states to levy taxes) but the federal government's proposal made localised income tax extremely difficult politically. The federal government offered instead compensatory grants authorised by s. 96 of the Constitution for the loss of state income ( State Grants (Income Tax Reimbursement) Act 1942 ). The states rejected Canberra's regime and challenged
612-455: A debate that remains unsettled to this day: whether self-rooted vines produce better wine than those that are grafted. Of course, the argument is essentially irrelevant wherever phylloxera exists. Had American rootstock not been available and used, there would be no V. vinifera wine industry in Europe or most places other than Chile, Washington State, and most of Australia. Cyprus was spared by
714-424: A digestive system, and once hatched, they mate and then die. Before the female dies, she lays one winter egg in the bark of the vine's trunk. This egg develops into the leaf form . This nymph, the fundatrix (stem mother), climbs onto a leaf and lays eggs parthenogenetically in a leaf gall that she creates by injecting saliva into the leaf. The nymphs that hatch from these eggs may move to other leaves, or move to
816-490: A feeding wound on the root, American vines respond by forming a protective layer of tissue to cover the wound and protect it from secondary bacterial or fungal infections. Currently there is no cure for phylloxera and unlike other grape diseases such as powdery or downy mildew , there is no chemical control or response. The only successful means of controlling phylloxera has been the grafting of phylloxera-resistant American rootstock (usually hybrid varieties created from
918-403: A number of varietals, such as Chardonnay, Pinot noir and Shiraz. Moreover, Australians have innovated in canopy management and other viticultural and in wine-making techniques, and they have a general attitude toward their work that sets them apart from producers in Europe. Australian wine-makers travel the wine world as highly skilled seasonal workers, relocating to the northern hemisphere during
1020-473: A portion used for winemaking. Early Australian winemakers faced many difficulties, particularly due to the unfamiliar Australian climate. But because it is also warm, dry, and Mediterranean overall, making Australia ideal for wine production, they eventually achieved considerable success. "At the 1873 Vienna Exhibition the French judges, tasting blind, praised some wines from Victoria, but withdrew in protest when
1122-507: A recession. In September 2020, it was confirmed that due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic , the Australian economy had gone into recession for the first time in nearly thirty years, as the country's GDP fell 7 per cent in the June 2020 quarter, following a 0.3 per cent drop in the March quarter. It officially ended at the beginning of December 2020. The following table shows
SECTION 10
#17327729049951224-414: A resistant, or tolerant, rootstock, developed by Charles Valentine Riley in collaboration with J. E. Planchon and promoted by T. V. Munson , involved grafting a Vitis vinifera scion onto the roots of a resistant Vitis aestivalis or other American native species. This is the preferred method today, because the rootstock does not interfere with the development of the wine grapes (more technically,
1326-528: A time when China was Australia's most lucrative market. As relations between the two countries improved the tariffs were removed in March 2024. In 2024, in part due to overproduction as well as falling consumption, Australian vignerons uprooted millions of vines. Major grape varieties are Shiraz , Pinot noir , Cabernet Sauvignon , Merlot , Chardonnay , Sauvignon blanc , Sémillon , and Riesling . The country has no native grapes, and Vitis vinifera varieties were introduced from Europe and South Africa in
1428-632: Is "AAA" for all three major rating agencies, higher than the United States of America. The emphasis on exporting commodities rather than manufactures underpinned a significant increase in Australia's terms of trade during the rise in commodity prices since 2000. However, due to a colonial heritage a lot of companies operating in Australia are foreign-owned and as a result, Australia has had persistent current account deficits for over 60 years despite periods of positive net merchandise exports; given
1530-579: Is also found in South Australia, California (particularly Paso Robles, originating with Tablas Creek Vineyard ), and Washington (Columbia Valley); smaller production exists in Argentina and South Africa. A very similar blend is traditional to Priorat (in Catalonia , Spain), still based on Garnacha (Grenache), but adding Mazuelo (Carignan), Syrah, and Merlot (same GS, different M's). Grenache
1632-602: Is also practiced where possible, for instance south of the city of Tarascon . Flooding the vineyards for 50 days kills all the nymphs that overwinter in the roots or the bark at the bottom of the plant. Some regions were so blighted by phylloxera that they never recovered, and instead the producers switched crops entirely. The island of Mallorca is one example, where almonds now substitute for vines. According to wine critic and author Kerin O'Keefe , thanks to tiny parcels of vineyards throughout Europe which were inexplicably unscathed, some vineyards still exist as they were before
1734-664: Is an insect pest of grapevines worldwide, originally native to eastern North America . Grape phylloxera ( Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (Fitch 1855) belong to the family Phylloxeridae , within the order Hemiptera , bugs); originally described in France as Phylloxera vastatrix ; equated to the previously described Daktulosphaera vitifoliae , Phylloxera vitifoliae . The insect is commonly just called phylloxera ( / f ɪ ˈ l ɒ k s ə r ə / ; from Ancient Greek : φύλλον , leaf, and ξηρός , dry). These almost microscopic, pale yellow sap-sucking insects , related to aphids , feed on
1836-635: Is characterised as a "two-speed economy". From June 2012 to March 2013 Victoria experienced a recession. In 2012 the Government of Victoria cut 10% of all jobs in the public service. The period since has seen these trends reversed with Western Australia and Northern Territory, who are heavily dependent on mining, experience significant downturns in GDP while the eastern states returned to growth, led by strong upturns in NSW and Victoria. Taxation in Australia
1938-749: Is dominated by a small number of major wine companies. The largest wineries are the Casella winery in Yenda, NSW ( Yellow Tail wines) and the Berri Estates winery in Glossop, SA. The ownership of wineries varies but their location has largely been the same since the introduction of stainless steel tanks in the 1990s, there was a major change in the wine industry in the 1980s when local winegrower cooperatives ceased operations or were privatised. The majority of grapes are grown in warm climate regions, including
2040-444: Is levied at the federal, state, and local government levels. The federal government raises revenue from personal income taxes and business taxes. Other taxes include the goods and services tax (General Service Tax) , excise and customs duties. The federal government is the main source of income for state governments. As a result of state dependence on federal taxation revenue to meet decentralised expenditure responsibilities, Australia
2142-666: Is no evidence that she placed an order as a result. The production and quality of Australian wine was much improved by the arrival of free settlers from various parts of Europe, who used their skills and knowledge to establish some of Australia's premier wine regions. For example, emigrants from Prussia in the mid-1850s were important in establishing South Australia's Barossa Valley as a winemaking region. In smaller scale, winemakers from Switzerland also helped in establishing Geelong wine region in Victoria in 1842. In 1853, Australia had less than six hundred hectares of grapes, with only
SECTION 20
#17327729049952244-551: Is ranked 18th in the world (CIA World Factbook 2016). The country was ranked fifth in the United Nations 2022 Human Development Index and sixth in The Economist worldwide quality-of-life index 2005. In 2014, using constant exchange rates, Australia's wealth had grown by 4.4% annually on average after the financial crisis of 2007–2008 , compared with a 9.2% rate over 2000–2007. Australia's sovereign credit rating
2346-556: Is responsible for most of the production of wine in Australia. In recent years, the Tasmanian wine industry has emerged as a producer of high quality wines. In particular, the Tamar Valley has developed a reputation for its Chardonnay and Pinot noir, which are well suited to the cooler Tasmanian climate. Queensland is also developing a wine industry with over 100 vineyards registered in the state. Some notable wines are produced in
2448-585: Is said to have a vertical fiscal imbalance . Besides receipts of funds from the federal government, states and territories have their own taxes, in many cases as slightly different rates. State taxes commonly include payroll tax levied on businesses, a poker-machine tax on businesses that offer gambling services, land tax on people and businesses that own land and most significantly, stamp duty on sales of land (in every state) and other items (chattels in some states, unlisted shares in others, and even sales of contracts in some states). The states effectively lost
2550-626: Is the Australian dollar , which it shares with several Pacific nation states. Australia's economy is strongly intertwined with the countries of East and Southeast Asia , also known as ASEAN Plus Three (APT), accounting for about 64% of exports in 2016. China in particular is Australia's main export and import partner by a wide margin. Australia is a member of the APEC , G20 , OECD and WTO . The country has also entered into free trade agreements with ASEAN , Canada, Chile, China, South Korea, Malaysia, New Zealand, Peru, Japan, Singapore, Thailand and
2652-434: Is the lightest of the three grapes, producing a pale red juice with soft berry scents and a bit of spiciness. As a blending component, it contributes alcohol, warmth and fruitiness without added tannins . Shiraz can contribute full-bodied, fleshy flavours of black fruits and pepper. It adds colour, backbone and tannins and provides the sense of balance such blends require. Mourvèdre contributes elegance, structure and acidity to
2754-470: The Vitis berlandieri , Vitis riparia and Vitis rupestris species) to more susceptible European vinifera vines. Phylloxera has a complex life-cycle of up to 18 stages, that can be divided into four principal forms: sexual form, leaf form, root form, and winged form. The sexual form begins with male and female eggs laid on the underside of young grape leaves. The male and female at this stage lack
2856-478: The Black Summer bushfires of 2019 to 2020, winemaking was adversely affected in production areas struck by fire or smoke, which affects flavour through smoke taint . The Adelaide Hills wine region was particularly badly hit, losing up to 30% of is vineyards. Some winemakers found innovative ways to get around the problem of tainted grapes. In 2020, China placed taxes of more than 200% on Australian wines at
2958-555: The Business Franchise Licences (Tobacco) Act 1987 (NSW) was invalid because it levied a customs duty, a power exercisable only by the Commonwealth (s.90). This decision effectively invalidated state taxes on cigarettes, alcohol and petrol. Similarly, the imposition of a Commonwealth goods and services tax (GST) in 2000 transferred another revenue base to the Commonwealth. Consequently, Australia has one of
3060-755: The National Australia Bank in April 2012 cut its growth forecast for Australia to 2.9% from 3.2%., and JP Morgan in May 2012 cut its growth forecast to 2.7% in calendar 2012 from a previous forecast of 3.0%, also its forecast for growth in 2013 to 3.0% from 3.3%. Deutsche Bank in August 2012, and Société Générale in October 2012, warned that there is risk of recession in Australia in 2013. While Australia's overall national economy grew, some non-mining states and Australia's non-mining economy experienced
3162-461: The genes responsible for the grapes are not in the rootstock but in the scion), and it furthermore allows the customization of the rootstock to soil and weather conditions, as well as desired vigor. Not all rootstocks are equally resistant. Between the 1960s and the 1980s in California , many growers used a rootstock called AxR1 . Even though it had already failed in many parts of the world by
Australian wine - Misplaced Pages Continue
3264-470: The penal colony of New South Wales by Governor Phillip on the First Fleet (1788). Wine produced from this was initially for household use. An attempt at wine making from these first vines failed, but with perseverance, other settlers managed to successfully cultivate vines for winemaking , and Australian made wine was available for sale domestically by the 1820s. In 1822 Gregory Blaxland became
3366-400: The provenance of the wine was revealed, on the grounds that wines of that quality must clearly be French." Australian wines continued to win high honours in French competitions. A Victorian Syrah (also called Shiraz) competing in the 1878 Paris Exhibition was likened to Château Margaux and "its taste completed its trinity of perfection." One Australian wine won a gold medal "first class" at
3468-404: The "poison". Areas with soils composed principally of sand or schist were spared, and the spread was slowed in dry climates, but gradually phylloxera spread across the continent. A significant amount of research was devoted to finding a solution to the phylloxera problem, and two major solutions gradually emerged: grafting cuttings onto resistant rootstocks and hybridization . By the end of
3570-524: The 1850s. Because phylloxera is native to North America, the native grape species are at least partially resistant. By contrast, the European wine grape Vitis vinifera is very susceptible to the insect. The epidemic devastated vineyards in Britain and then moved to the European mainland, destroying most of the European grape growing industry. In 1863, the first vines began to deteriorate inexplicably in
3672-530: The 1882 Bordeaux International Exhibition and another won a gold medal "against the world" at the 1889 Paris International Exhibition. That was all before the destructive effects on the industry of the phylloxera epidemic. Australia has rapidly become a world leader in both the quantity and quality of wines it produces. For example, Australian wine exports to the US rose from 578,000 cases in 1990 to 20,000,000 cases in 2004 and in 2000 it exported more wine than France to
3774-419: The 1920s, followed by the 1950s and the 1980s. By contrast, the late 1910s/early 1920s, the 1930s, the 1970s and early 1990s were marked by financial crises. From the early 1980s onwards, the Australian economy has undergone intermittent economic liberalisation . In 1983, under prime minister Bob Hawke , but mainly driven by treasurer Paul Keating , the Australian dollar was floated and financial deregulation
3876-456: The 1960s and 1970s which fuelled the rise of suburbanisation and consumerism in Perth , the capital and most populous city of Western Australia, as well as other regional centres. The Australian government stimulus package ($ 11.8 billion) helped to prevent a recession. The World Bank expected Australia's GDP growth rate to be 3.2% in 2011 and 3.8% in 2012. The economy expanded by 0.4% in
3978-729: The 1998 vintage 99 points out of a possible 100. Wine critic Hugh Johnson has called Grange the only First Growth of the Southern Hemisphere. The influential wine critic Robert Parker , who is well known for his love of Bordeaux wines, has written that Grange "has replaced Bordeaux's Pétrus as the world's most exotic and concentrated wine". Other red wines to garner international attention include Henschke Hill of Grace, Clarendon Hills Astralis, D'Arenberg Dead Arm, Torbreck Run Rig and other high-end Penfolds wines such as St Henri shiraz. Australia has almost 2000 wine producers, most of whom are small winery operations. The market
4080-465: The 19th century, hybridization became a popular avenue of research for stopping phylloxera. Hybridization is the breeding of Vitis vinifera with resistant species. Most native American grapes are naturally phylloxera resistant ( Vitis aestivalis , rupestris , and riparia are particularly so, while Vitis labrusca has a somewhat weak resistance to it) but have aromas that are off-putting to palates accustomed to European grapes. The intent of
4182-418: The 26th year since the country had a technical recession (two consecutive quarters of negative growth). As of June 2021, the country's GDP was estimated at $ 1.98 trillion. The Australian economy is dominated by its service sector , which in 2017 comprised 62.7% of the GDP and employed 78.8% of the labour force. At the height of the mining boom in 2009–10, the total value-added of the mining industry
Australian wine - Misplaced Pages Continue
4284-455: The 5th largest world producer of salt . The country is also a major producer of precious stones. Australia is the world's largest producer of opal and is one of the largest producers of diamond , ruby , sapphire and jade . In non-renewable energies, in 2020, the country was the 30th largest producer of oil in the world, extracting 351.1 thousand barrels / day. In 2019, the country consumed 1 million barrels / day (20th largest consumer in
4386-729: The Australian media due to discrepancies between the methods of different research bodies (Roy Morgan versus the ABS), differing definitions of the term 'unemployed' and the ABS' practice of counting under-employed people as "employed". As of February 2024, the Australia labour force were employed in the following industries (seasonally adjusted) : According to the Australian Graduate Survey done by Graduate Careers Australia , full-time employment for newly qualified professionals from various occupations (around four months after
4488-641: The Graduate Careers Survey 2014 survey included 113,263 responses ("59.3 per cent of the almost 191,000 Australian resident graduates who were surveyed responded to the AGS.") The professional associations of some of these occupations expressed their criticism of the immigration policy in 2014. Note: All data in the table above is seasonally adjusted . In 2019, the country was the 2nd largest world producer of gold ; 8th largest world producer of silver ; 6th largest world producer of copper ;
4590-584: The Riverina, Murray Valley and Riverland wine regions, located in southern NSW, north western Victoria and South Australia. A 2019 report by the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission examined grape production in these areas and the myriad competition and consumer issues facing growers. The information included on wine labels is strictly regulated. One aspect of this is that the label must not make any false or misleading statements about
4692-425: The UK for the first time in history. The industry has at times suffered from its own productivity. In the late 1980s, governments sponsored growers to pull out their vines when Australia was a net importer of wine. Low grape prices in 2005 and 2006 have led to calls for another sponsored vine pull. Cleanskin wines were introduced into Australia during the 1960s as a means to combat oversupply and poor sales. During
4794-467: The UK. 2007 statistics for the North American market show that Australian wine accounted for a 17% share of the total value of US imported wine, behind France with 31% and Italy with 28%. New marketing strategies developed for the key UK market encouraged customers to explore premium Australian brands while maintaining sales of the lower-margin high-volume brands, following research that indicated
4896-442: The United States. The ANZCERTA agreement with New Zealand has greatly increased integration with the economy of New Zealand . Australia's average GDP growth rate for the period 1901–2000 was 3.4% annually. As opposed to many neighbouring Southeast Asian countries, the process towards independence was relatively peaceful and thus did not have significant negative impact on the economy and standard of living. Growth peaked during
4998-543: The ability to raise income tax during the Second World War. In 1942, Canberra invoked its Constitutional taxation power (s. 51 (ii)) and enacted the Income Tax Act and three other statutes to levy a uniform income tax across the country. These acts sought to raise the funds necessary to meet burgeoning wartime expenses and reduce the unequal tax burden between the states by replacing state income taxes with
5100-457: The bark or on the vine roots; these leaf galls are typically only found on the leaves of American vines. American vine species (such as Vitis labrusca ) have evolved to have several natural defenses against phylloxera. The roots of the American vines exude a sticky sap that repels the nymph form by clogging its mouth when it tries to feed from the vine. If the nymph is successful in creating
5202-742: The blend, producing flavours of sweet plums, roasted game and hints of tobacco. Australia's most famous wine is Penfolds Grange . The great 1955 vintage was submitted to competitions beginning in 1962 and over the years has won more than 50 gold medals. The vintage of 1971 won first prize in Syrah/Shiraz at the Wine Olympics in Paris. The 1990 vintage was named 'Red Wine of the Year' by the Wine Spectator magazine in 1995, which later rated
SECTION 50
#17327729049955304-435: The completion of their qualifications) experienced some declines between 2012 and 2015. Some examples are: The Graduate Careers Survey 2014 explained, "However, GCA's Beyond Graduation Survey (BGS) indicates that the middle- and longer-term outlook is very positive, with the employment figures for 2010 graduates growing by 14 percentage points three years later." The Beyond Graduation Survey 2013 included 12,384 responses and
5406-484: The country was the 4th largest in the world in 2018: 481.3 million tons. Australia is the 2nd largest coal exporter in the world (387 million tons in 2018) In 2014–15 mineral extraction in Australia was valued at 212 billion Australian dollars. Of this, coal represented 45,869 million, oil and natural gas 40,369 million, iron ore 69,486 million, gold ore 13,685 million, and other metals 7,903 million. Phylloxera Grape phylloxera
5508-554: The court's earlier decision and confirmed the power of the federal government's power to make s. 96 grants conditionally (in this case, a grant made on the condition that the recipient state does not levy income tax). Since the Second Uniform Tax Case , a number of other political and legal decisions have centralised fiscal power with the Commonwealth. In Ha vs. New South Wales (1997), the High Court found that
5610-635: The cross was to generate a hybrid vine that was resistant to phylloxera but produced wine that did not taste like the American grape. The hybrids tend not to be especially resistant to phylloxera, although they are much hardier with respect to climate and other vine diseases. The new hybrid varieties have never gained the popularity of the traditional ones. In the EU they are generally banned or at least strongly discouraged from use in quality wine , although they are still in widespread use in much of North America, such as Missouri, Ontario, and upstate New York. Use of
5712-539: The crucial US market. Australian wine accounts for a very large imported wine market share in South Asian countries and is the second largest imported wine in India with a market share of 16%. Australia was China's largest supplier of imported wine, a standing achieved in part by free-trade agreements established between the two countries. However, in retaliation for the Australian government's support of an inquiry into
5814-496: The early twentieth century, it was thought to be resistant by growers in California. Although phylloxera initially did not feed heavily on AxR1 roots, within twenty years, mutation and selective pressures within the phylloxera population began to overcome this rootstock, resulting in the eventual failure of most vineyards planted on AxR1. The replanting of afflicted vineyards continues today. Many have suggested that this failure
5916-567: The economy, including tourism, education and financial services, constitutes 69% of GDP. Australian National University in Canberra also provides a probabilistic interest-rate-setting project for the Australian economy, which is compiled by shadow board members from the ANU academic staff. Rich in natural resources, Australia is a major exporter of agricultural products, particularly wheat and wool , minerals such as iron ore and gold, and energy in
6018-557: The first person to export Australian wine, and was the first winemaker to win an overseas award. In 1830 vineyards were established in the Hunter Valley. In 1833 James Busby returned from France and Spain with a serious selection of grape varieties including most classic French grapes and a good selection of grapes for fortified wine production. Wine from the Adelaide Hills was sent to Queen Victoria in 1844, but there
6120-626: The forms of liquified natural gas and coal. Although agriculture and natural resources constitute only 3% and 5% of GDP, respectively, they contribute substantially to Australia's export composition. Australia's largest export markets are Japan, China, South Korea, India and the United States. At the turn of the current century, Australia experienced a significant mining boom. The mining sector's contribution to overall GDP grew from around 4.5% in 1993–94, to almost 8% in 2006–07. The services sector also grew considerably, with property and business services in particular growing from 10% to 14.5% of GDP over
6222-561: The fourth quarter of 2011, and expanded by 1.3% in the first quarter of 2012. The growth rate was reported to be 4.3% year-on-year. The International Monetary Fund in April 2012 predicted that Australia would be the best-performing major advanced economy in the world over the next two years; the Australian Government Department of the Treasury anticipated "forecast growth of 3.0% in 2012 and 3.5% in 2013",
SECTION 60
#17327729049956324-431: The high-altitude Granite Belt region in the state's extreme south, production is centred on the towns of Stanthorpe and Ballandean . Some well-known wine-producing regions include: Greater Perth: South Western Australia: The Australian Wine export market was worth 2.8 billion Australian dollars (A$ ) a year in June 2007, having grown at 9%pa. Of this about A$ 2 billion is accounted for by North America and
6426-604: The insect, which is slowly advancing and destroying the Pie Franco vineyard of the Casa Castillo estate, planted in 1942, i.e., when phylloxera had already been in the region for five decades. Large swaths of vineyards on the slopes of Sicily's volcano Mount Etna also remain free of phylloxera. Some vines are more than one-hundred-fifty years old, predating the phylloxera infestation in Sicily (1879–1880). Part of
6528-773: The late 18th and early 19th centuries. Some varieties have been bred by Australian viticulturists, for example Cienna and Tarrango . The most widely cultivated grape variety in Australia is Shiraz. About 130 different grape varieties are used by commercial winemakers in Australia. Over recent years many winemakers have been rediscovering so-called "alternative varieties" other than those listed above. Many varieties from France, Italy and Spain, for example Petit Verdot , Pinot grigio , Sangiovese , Tempranillo , Nebbiolo , Malbec , Barbera , Arneis , Fiano (grape) and Viognier are becoming more common. Wines from many other varieties are being produced. Australian winemaking results have been impressive and it has established benchmarks for
6630-534: The legislation's validity in the First Uniform Tax Case ( South Australia v Commonwealth ) of 1942. The High Court of Australia held that each of the statutes establishing Commonwealth income tax was a valid use of the s. 51(ii) power, in which Latham CJ noted that the system did not undermine essential state functions and imposed only economic and political pressure upon them. The Second Uniform Tax Case ( Victoria v Commonwealth (1957)) reaffirmed
6732-542: The main economic indicators in 1980–2023 (with IMF staff estimates in 2024–2027). Inflation under 5% is in green. (in bil. US$ PPP) (in US$ PPP) (in bil. US$ nominal) (in US$ nominal) (real) (in percent) (in percent) (in % of GDP) Australia's per-capita GDP is higher than that of the UK, Canada, Germany and France in terms of purchasing power parity . Per Capita GDP (PPP) Australia
6834-463: The medieval village of Fermoselle in Spain . The Juan Garcia variety remained—untouched by phylloxera—sheltered on the vineyards planted on the man-made land terraces along the mountainous skirts on the gigantic and steep Duero Arribes / Douro River Canyon , where the microclimatic conditions discourage the growth of phylloxera. To escape the threat of phylloxera, wines have been produced since 1979 on
6936-485: The mid-1800s. Since 1985, the winery has produced a few bottles of Prefillossero (Italian for "before the phylloxera"). The wine has a following, including Italian wine critic Luigi Veronelli who inscribed on a bottle of the 1987 at the winery that drinking Prefillossero was like listening to 'the earth singing to the sky'. Jumilla in southeastern Spain is an important area of ungrafted vineyards, mainly from Monastrell grapes. Those vineyards, however, are not immune to
7038-412: The most pronounced vertical fiscal imbalances in the world: the states and territories collect just 18% of all governmental revenues but are responsible for almost 50% of the spending areas. Furthermore, the centralisation of revenue collection has allowed Canberra to force state policy in areas well beyond the scope of its constitutional powers, by using the grants power (s.96) to mandate the terms on which
7140-616: The net income outlay between Australia and the rest of the world is always negative. The current account deficit totalled AUD$ 44.5 billion in 2016 or 2.6% of GDP. Inflation has typically been between 2 and 3% and the pre-GFC cash rate typically ranged between 5 and 7%, however, partly in response to the end of the mining boom the cash rate has recently been steadily falling, dropping from 4.75% in October 2011 to 1.5% in Aug 2016, then to 1.25% in June 2019 and 1.0% in July 2019. The service sector of
7242-515: The off-season at home. They are an important resource in the globalisation of wine and wine critic Matt Kramer notes that "the most powerful influence in wine today" comes from Australia. GSM is a name commonly used for a red wine consisting of a blend of Grenache , Shiraz (Syrah), and Mourvèdre . Blends where Shiraz is the main component are sometimes referred to instead as SGM . This blend originated from those used in some Southern Rhône wines , including Châteauneuf-du-Pape , though it
7344-551: The origins of Covid-19, China imposed tariffs of over 200% on Australian wine in October 2020. These tariffs have been lifted as of April 2024 following an improvement in relations between the two countries. Canada is the fourth-largest export market for Australian wines with the major exporting provinces being British Columbia, Ontario and Quebec. With the restrictions on the sale of Australian wine being removed in British Columbia, Australian wine will be on more shelves in
7446-697: The parcels, Croix Rouge in Bouzy , died from phylloxera and was replanted with grafted rootstock. A rare vintage port is made from ungrafted vines grown on a small parcel, called Nacional, in the heart of the Quinta do Noval. It is unknown why this plot survived. Another vineyard unaffected by the phylloxera is the Lisini estate in Montalcino in Italy, a half-hectare vineyard of Sangiovese with vines dating back to
7548-474: The particular Terroir such as: climatic differences, topography and soil types . The major varieties are predominantly Shiraz , Cabernet Sauvignon , Chardonnay , Merlot , Semillon , Pinot noir , Riesling , and Sauvignon blanc . Wines are often labelled with the name of their grape variety, which must constitute at least 85 percent of the wine. Vine cuttings from the Cape of Good Hope were brought to
7650-634: The phylloxera devastation. So far, most Chilean wine has remained phylloxera free. It is isolated from the rest of the world by the Atacama Desert to the north, the Pacific Ocean to the west, and the Andes Mountains to the east. Phylloxera has also never been found in several wine-growing regions of Australia, including Tasmania, Western Australia and South Australia. Australia has strong internal biosecurity controls to minimise
7752-542: The phylloxera plague, and thus its wine stock has not been grafted for phylloxera resistant purposes. The only European grapes that are natively resistant to phylloxera are the Assyrtiko grape which grows on the volcanic island of Santorini , Greece, although it is not clear whether the resistance is due to the rootstock itself or the volcanic ash on which it grows; and the Juan Garcia grape variety, autochthonous to
7854-412: The province with lower tariffs. Australian wine research and production is supported by the government through partnerships with the publicly funded CSIRO and Wine Australia worth $ 18 million. In an average year, alcohol production in Australia is estimated to produce between $ 3.3 and $ 5.5 billion in taxable income. Economy of Australia Australia is a highly developed country with
7956-554: The reason for this is the high concentration of silica sand and very low (less than 3%) concentration of clay in the volcanic soils . In this environment (> 400m AMSL), the surface water from heavy bouts of rain seals the soil so perfectly that it drowns phylloxera before they are able to thrive. Bien Nacido Vineyard in Santa Maria Valley AVA of Santa Barbara, CA is a phylloxera-free vineyard. Despite being planted on its own roots, with UC Davis virus-free clones,
8058-517: The risk of phylloxera spreading beyond 'Phylloxera Infested Zones' in parts of Victoria and New South Wales. The Riesling of the Mosel region has also remained untouched by phylloxera; the parasite is unable to survive in the slate soil. Until 2005, three tiny parcels of ungrafted Pinot noir that escaped phylloxera were used to produce Bollinger Vieilles Vignes Françaises, one of the rarest and most expensive Champagnes available. In 2004, one of
8160-414: The roots and leaves of grapevines (depending on the phylloxera genetic strain). On Vitis vinifera , the resulting deformations on roots ("nodosities" and "tuberosities") and secondary fungal infections can girdle roots, gradually cutting off the flow of nutrients and water to the vine. Nymphs also form protective galls on the undersides of grapevine leaves of some Vitis species and overwinter under
8262-406: The roots where they begin new infections in the root form . In this form they perforate the root to find nourishment, infecting the root with a poisonous secretion that stops it from healing. This poison eventually kills the vine. This nymph reproduces by laying eggs for up to seven more generations (which also can reproduce parthenogenetically) each summer. These offspring spread to other roots of
8364-474: The same period, making it the largest single component of GDP (in sectoral terms). This growth has largely been at the expense of the manufacturing sector, which in 2006–07 accounted for around 12% of GDP. A decade earlier, it was the largest sector in the economy, accounting for just over 15% of GDP. In 2018 Australia became the country with the largest median wealth per adult, but slipped back to second highest after Switzerland in 2019. Australia's total wealth
8466-572: The same. Many attempts have been made to interrupt this life cycle to eradicate phylloxera, but it has proven to be extremely adaptable, as no one stage of the life cycle is solely dependent upon another for the propagation of the species. In the late 19th century the phylloxera epidemic destroyed most of the vineyards for wine grapes in Europe, most notably in France . Phylloxera was introduced to Europe when avid botanists in Victorian England collected specimens of American vines in
8568-550: The sandy beaches of Provence's Bouches-du-Rhône , which extends from the coastline of the Gard region to the waterfront village of Saintes Maries de la Mer . The sand, sun and wind in this area has been a major deterrent to phylloxera. The wine produced here is called "Vins des Sables" or "wines of the sands". In the same department, where the canal irrigation system built by the Romans still partly persists to this day, winter flooding
8670-630: The second biggest per capita wine consumers in the world with 54 litres. Only 16.6% of wine sold domestically is imported. Wine is produced in every state, with more than 60 designated wine regions totalling approximately 160,000 hectares; however Australia's wine regions are mainly in the southern, cooler parts of the country, with vineyards located in South Australia , New South Wales , Victoria , Western Australia , Tasmania and Queensland . The wine regions in each of these states produce different wine varieties and styles that take advantage of
8772-499: The source of the grapes. Many names (called geographic indications ) are protected. These are divided into "South Eastern Australia", the state names , zones (shown in the map), regions, and subregions. The largest volume of wine is produced from grapes grown in the warm climate Murray-Darling Basin zones of Lower Murray , North Western Victoria and Big Rivers. In general, the higher-value premium wines are made from smaller and cooler-climate regions. The South Australian wine industry
8874-428: The southern Rhône region of France. The problem spread rapidly across the continent. In France alone, total wine production fell from 84.5 million hectolitres in 1875 to only 23.4 million hectolitres in 1889. Some estimates hold that between two-thirds and nine-tenths of all European vineyards were destroyed. In France, one of the desperate measures of grape growers was to bury a live toad under each vine to draw out
8976-659: The states spend money in areas over which it has no power (such as spending on education, health and policing). Local governments (called councils in Australia) have their own taxes (called rates) to enable them to provide services such as local road repairs, local planning and building management, garbage collection, street cleaning, park maintenance services, libraries, and museums. Councils also rely on state and federal funding to provide infrastructure and services such as roads, bridges, sporting facilities and buildings, aged care, maternal and child health, and childcare. In 2000,
9078-449: The unemployment rate for this group decreased by 0.2 points to 9.3%. According to the ABS, in October 2024, the underemployment rate decreased by 0.1 points to 6.2%, while the underutilisation rate (the unemployed plus the under-employed) remained steady at 10.4% in trend terms. According to Roy Morgan Research the unemployment rate in April 2019 was 8.9%, while Australian workers who were considered either unemployed or underemployed
9180-468: The unemployment rate rose to 10.8%. However, the recession did assist in reducing long-term inflation rate expectations and Australia has maintained a low inflation environment since the 1990s to the present day. Mining has contributed to Australia's high level of economic growth, from the gold rush in the 1840s to the present day. The opportunities for large profits in pastoralism and mining attracted considerable amounts of British capital, while expansion
9282-474: The vine, or to the roots of other vines through cracks in the soil. The generation of nymphs that hatch in the autumn hibernate in the roots and emerge next spring when the sap begins to rise. In humid areas, the nymphs develop into the winged form , else they perform the same role without wings. These nymphs start the cycle again by either staying on the vine to lay male and female eggs on the bottom side of young grape leaves, or flying to an uninfected vine to do
9384-407: The vineyard has never been affected by phylloxera. The high percentage of sand in the soil creates a mostly uninhabitable substrate for phylloxera. While Bien Nacido has not been affected, there is a potential, as all of the vines are true Vitis vinifera without scions or grafting. Many of the old vines were planted in 1973 and fall within the blocks G, N, Q and W. The wines of Bien Nacido Estate have
9486-488: The world in terms of domestic market capitalisation and has one of the largest interest rate derivatives markets in the Asia-Pacific region . Some of Australia's largest companies include Commonwealth Bank , BHP , CSL , Westpac , NAB , ANZ , Fortescue , Wesfarmers , Macquarie Group , Woolworths Group , Rio Tinto , Telstra , Woodside Energy and Transurban . The currency of Australia and its territories
9588-472: The world's largest producer of iron ore ; the world's largest producer of bauxite ; the 2nd largest world producer of manganese ; 2nd largest world producer of lead ; 3rd largest world producer of zinc ; 3rd largest world producer of cobalt ; 3rd largest producer of uranium ; 6th largest producer of nickel ; 8th largest world producer of tin ; 14th largest world producer of phosphate ; 15th largest world producer of sulfur ; in addition to being
9690-410: The world). The country was the 20th largest oil importer in the world in 2018 (461.9 thousand barrels / day). In 2015, Australia was the 12th largest world producer of natural gas , 67.2 billion m3 per year. In 2019, the country was the 22nd largest gas consumer (41.9 billion m3 per year) and was the 10th largest gas exporter in the world in 2015: 34.0 billion m3 per year. In the production of coal ,
9792-466: Was 8.4% of GDP. Despite the recent decline in the mining sector, the Australian economy has remained resilient and stable and did not experience a recession from 1991 until 2020. Among OECD members, Australia has a highly efficient and strong social security system , which comprises roughly 25% of GDP . The Australian Securities Exchange in Sydney is the 16th-largest stock exchange in
9894-489: Was estimated to be 17.7% (2.381 million) in the same month. Around 4.219 million were estimated to be in part-time employment. In 2007, 228,621 Newstart unemployment allowance recipients were registered, a total that increased to 646,414 or 5.3% of the total labour force by March 2013. As of December 2018, the number of Newstart recipients stands at 722,923 or 5.4% of the labour force. The accuracy of official unemployment figures has been brought into question in
9996-611: Was estimated to be AUD$ 10.9 trillion as of September 2019. Between 2010 and 2013, much of the economic growth in Australia was attributed to areas of the country where mining- and resource-based industries and services are mostly located. Western Australia and the Northern Territory are the only states that have economic growth. During 2012 and 2013 Australian Capital Territory , Queensland , Tasmania , South Australia, New South Wales and Victoria experienced recessions at various times. The Australian economy
10098-416: Was facing decline, which eventually led to a savings and loan crisis which compromised the well-being of millions of US people. The following recession thus impacted the many countries closely linked to the US, including Australia. Paul Keating, who was treasurer at the time, famously referred to it as "the recession that Australia had to have." During the recession, GDP fell by 1.7%, employment by 3.4% and
10200-532: Was predictable, as one parent of AxR1 is in fact a susceptible V. vinifera cultivar. But the transmission of phylloxera tolerance is more complex, as is demonstrated by the continued success of 41B, an F1 hybrid of Vitis berlandieri and Vitis vinifera . Modern phylloxera infestation also occurs when wineries are in need of fruit immediately, and choose to plant ungrafted vines rather than wait for grafted vines to be available. The use of resistant American rootstock to guard against phylloxera also brought about
10302-471: Was supported by enormous government outlays for transport, communication, and urban infrastructures, which also depended heavily on British finance. As the economy expanded, large-scale immigration satisfied the growing demand for workers, especially after the end of convict transportation to the eastern mainland in 1840. Australia's mining operations secured continued economic growth and Western Australia itself benefited strongly from mining iron ore and gold from
10404-642: Was undertaken. The early 1990s recession came swiftly after the Black Monday of October 1987 , as a result of a stock collapse of unprecedented size which caused the Dow Jones Industrial Average to fall by 22.6%. This collapse, larger than the stock market crash of 1929 , was handled effectively by the global economy and the stock market began to quickly recover. But in North America, the lumbering savings and loans industry
#994005