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97-431: Before this church was constructed, there was a wooden church on the same site around the year 1024. That church is assumed to have been built by Olav Trygvason , and it is possible that the present stone church is built around this church originally. The church was mentioned by the historian Snorri Sturluson in chapter 19 of his book Soga om Olav den heilage . This church has been a landmark for seafarers passing through

194-450: A post . Supports with a rectangular or other non-round section are usually called piers . For the purpose of wind or earthquake engineering , columns may be designed to resist lateral forces. Other compression members are often termed "columns" because of the similar stress conditions. Columns are frequently used to support beams or arches on which the upper parts of walls or ceilings rest. In architecture, "column" refers to such

291-406: A thing had been called by Queen Gyda , sister of Olaf Cuaran , King of Dublin . Gyda was the widow of an earl , and was searching for a new husband. A great many men had come, but Gyda singled out Olaf, though he was wearing his bad weather clothes, and the other men wore their finest clothing. They were to be married, but another man, Alfvine, took objection, and challenged Olaf and his men to

388-567: A volute , an ornament shaped like a scroll , at the four corners. The height-to-thickness ratio is around 9:1. Due to the more refined proportions and scroll capitals, the Ionic column is sometimes associated with academic buildings. Ionic style columns were used on the second level of the Colosseum. The Corinthian order is named for the Greek city-state of Corinth , to which it was connected in

485-428: A column is reached is called the critical or buckling load. The state of instability is reached when a slight increase of the column load causes uncontrollably growing lateral deflections leading to complete collapse. For an axially loaded straight column with any end support conditions, the equation of static equilibrium, in the form of a differential equation, can be solved for the deflected shape and critical load of

582-778: A combined armada from Denmark , Sweden and the Jarls of Lade . Finally surrounded on his flagship the Ormrinn Langi (Long Serpent), Danish sources report that when all was lost he committed suicide by throwing himself into the sea, "the end befitting his life", according to Adam of Bremen. Saxo Grammaticus says that Olaf preferred suicide to death at the hands of the enemy and jumped overboard in full armour rather than see his foes victorious. The Norwegian and Icelandic accounts are more complex and more favourable to Olaf. Hallfreðr 's memorial poem for his lord had already alluded to rumours that Olaf escaped death at Svolder. The sagas offer

679-475: A concrete foundation, a steel column must have a base plate to spread the load over a larger area, and thereby reduce the bearing pressure. The base plate is a thick, rectangular steel plate usually welded to the bottom end of the column. The Roman author Vitruvius , relying on the writings (now lost) of Greek authors, tells us that the ancient Greeks believed that their Doric order developed from techniques for building in wood. The earlier smoothed tree-trunk

776-467: A continuously recurring decoration of stipules. The Minoans used whole tree-trunks, usually turned upside down in order to prevent re-growth , stood on a base set in the stylobate (floor base) and topped by a simple round capital. These were then painted as in the most famous Minoan palace of Knossos . The Minoans employed columns to create large open-plan spaces, light-wells and as a focal point for religious rituals. These traditions were continued by

873-481: A council of theological and juridical scholars). Probably there was a group of four scholars and teachers in law and theology. The stone church had a rectangular nave and narrower, rectangular chancel as well as a large tower to the west. There was an octagonal stone room located to the south of the quire . This octagonal room was a chapter house ( kapittelhus ). These rooms were common for English cathedrals and they were used for large group meetings. This room

970-427: A cross section that lacks symmetry may suffer torsional buckling (sudden twisting) before, or in combination with, lateral buckling. The presence of the twisting deformations renders both theoretical analyses and practical designs rather complex. Eccentricity of the load, or imperfections such as initial crookedness, decreases column strength. If the axial load on the column is not concentric, that is, its line of action

1067-548: A friend. Olaf decided that it was better for him to seek his fortune elsewhere, and set out for the Baltic. Heimskringla states that after leaving Novgorod, Olaf raided settlements and ports with success. In 982 he was caught in a storm and made port in Wendland , where he met Queen Geira , a daughter of King Burizleif . She ruled the part of Wendland in which Olaf had landed, and Olaf and his men were given an offer to stay for

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1164-443: A good man, for you never worshipped gods or paid them any reverence. But rather you disgraced them, and for that reason your works will be multiplied for good and profitable ends. Still you are very deficient in those qualities that would allow you to be in these regions and make you deserving to live here in eternity, because you do not know your Creator and you do not know who the true God is." In 988, Olaf sailed to England, because

1261-442: A marriage while Olaf and his troops were still there. Later, during one of their conversations, Olaf asked Geira if there were any towns that she had lost control over. She replied, "Lord, I can name for you the towns that have escaped from our control; we have suffered their arrogance for a long time." Following this conversation, Olaf went out and recaptured these towns for Geira. Following this, and their marriage, Olaf would stay in

1358-526: A native. He asked the boy about his family, and the boy told him he was Olaf, son of Tryggve Olafson and Astrid Eiriksdattir. Sigurd then went to Reas and bought Olaf and Thorgils out from slavery, and took the boys with him to Novgorod to live under the protection of Vladimir. Still according to Heimskringla , one day in the Novgorod marketplace Olaf encountered Klerkon, his enslaver and the murderer of his foster father. Olaf killed Klerkon with an axe blow to

1455-451: A sharp point where the fillets are located on Ionic and Corinthian order columns. Most classical columns arise from a basis, or base, that rests on the stylobate , or foundation , except for those of the Doric order , which usually rest directly on the stylobate. The basis may consist of several elements, beginning with a wide, square slab known as a plinth . The simplest bases consist of

1552-428: A single piece of stone. Monolithic columns are among the heaviest stones used in architecture. Other stone columns are created out of multiple sections of stone, mortared or dry-fit together. In many classical sites, sectioned columns were carved with a centre hole or depression so that they could be pegged together, using stone or metal pins. The design of most classical columns incorporates entasis (the inclusion of

1649-456: A single, prominent pillar or column, often made of stone. A number of world cultures incorporated pillars into tomb structures. In the ancient Greek colony of Lycia in Anatolia , one of these edifices is located at the tomb of Xanthos . In the town of Hannassa in southern Somalia , ruins of houses with archways and courtyards have also been found along with other pillar tombs, including

1746-408: A slight outward curve in the sides) plus a reduction in diameter along the height of the column, so that the top is as little as 83% of the bottom diameter. This reduction mimics the parallax effects which the eye expects to see, and tends to make columns look taller and straighter than they are while entasis adds to that effect. There are flutes and fillets that run up the shaft of columns. The flute

1843-452: A small scale, as they are easy to produce in wood by turning on a lathe (hence also the style's popularity for spindles on furniture and stairs). A Caryatid is a sculpted female figure serving as an architectural support taking the place of a column or a pillar supporting an entablature on her head. The Greek term karyatides literally means "maidens of Karyai ", an ancient town of Peloponnese . In architecture, an engaged column

1940-609: A snake, was killed by a snake goaded by a hot poker through a drinking horn into Raud's mouth and down his throat. Eyvind Kinnrifi likewise refused and was killed by a brazier of hot coals resting on his belly. The possibly apocryphal figure, Sigrid the Haughty was said to have refused to marry Olaf if it meant forgoing her forefathers' religion, upon which Olaf slapped her with his glove, an act that prompted her to unite his enemies against him years later. Column A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering

2037-417: A structural element that also has certain proportional and decorative features. These beautiful columns are available in a broad selection of styles and designs in round tapered, round straight, or square shaft styles. A column might also be a decorative element not needed for structural purposes; many columns are engaged , that is to say form part of a wall. A long sequence of columns joined by an entablature

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2134-461: A variety of possibilities. Ágrip reports: "But of the fall of King Óláfr nothing was known. It was seen that as the fighting lessened he stood, still alive, on the high-deck astern on the Long Serpent , which had thirty-two rowing places. But when Eiríkr went to the stern of the ship in search of the king, a light flashed before him as though it were lightning, and when the light disappeared,

2231-481: Is a column embedded in a wall and partly projecting from the surface of the wall, sometimes defined as semi or three-quarter detached. Engaged columns are rarely found in classical Greek architecture, and then only in exceptional cases, but in Roman architecture they exist in abundance, most commonly embedded in the cella walls of pseudoperipteral buildings. Pillar tombs are monumental graves, which typically feature

2328-415: Is a structural element that transmits, through compression , the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below. In other words, a column is a compression member . The term column applies especially to a large round support (the shaft of the column) with a capital and a base or pedestal , which is made of stone, or appearing to be so. A small wooden or metal support is typically called

2425-486: Is also a simple design, the base and capital both being series of cylindrical disks of alternating diameter. The shaft is almost never fluted. The proportions vary, but are generally similar to Doric columns. Height to width ratio is about 7:1. The Ionic column is considerably more complex than the Doric or Tuscan. It usually has a base and the shaft is often fluted (it has grooves carved up its length). The capital features

2522-472: Is assumed to have been referenced in 1599 by clergyman and historical writer Peder Claussøn Friis (1545–1614). Remaining walls for this room were visible as late as 1840, but are now completely gone. Decay started with the Black Death in 1349–1351. This disaster was followed by 400 years of Danish supremacy. In this period, the church gradually fell into a state of ruin due to lack of repair. By 1599,

2619-470: Is equal to or more than 400 mm. Massive columns have the ability to increase in carrying strength over long time periods (even during periods of heavy load). Taking into account the fact, that possible structural loads may increase over time as well (and also the threat of progressive failure), massive columns have an advantage compared to non-massive ones. When a column is too long to be built or transported in one piece, it has to be extended or spliced at

2716-479: Is equal to the square root of (I/A), K = ratio of the longest half sine wave to the actual column length, E t = tangent modulus at the stress F cr , and KL = effective length (length of an equivalent hinged-hinged column). From Equation (2) it can be noted that the buckling strength of a column is inversely proportional to the square of its length. When the critical stress, F cr ( F cr = P cr / A , where A  = cross-sectional area of

2813-441: Is from four to six times as tall as its diameter; it has twenty broad flutes; the capital consists simply of a banded necking swelling out into a smooth echinus, which carries a flat square abacus; the Doric entablature is also the heaviest, being about one-fourth the height column. The Greek Doric order was not used after c. 100 B.C. until its “rediscovery” in the mid-eighteenth century. The Tuscan order , also known as Roman Doric,

2910-484: Is known as a colonnade . All significant Iron Age civilizations of the Near East and Mediterranean made some use of columns. In ancient Egyptian architecture as early as 2600 BC, the architect Imhotep made use of stone columns whose surface was carved to reflect the organic form of bundled reeds, like papyrus , lotus and palm . In later Egyptian architecture faceted cylinders were also common. Their form

3007-412: Is not precisely coincident with the centroidal axis of the column, the column is characterized as eccentrically loaded. The eccentricity of the load, or an initial curvature, subjects the column to immediate bending. The increased stresses due to the combined axial-plus-flexural stresses result in a reduced load-carrying ability. Column elements are considered to be massive if their smallest side dimension

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3104-592: Is recorded in the Flateyjarbók , and in the early 15th-century Bergsbók . The account in this article is primarily based on the late sagas. There is uncertainty about both the date and the place of Olaf's birth. The earliest Norwegian written source, the Historia Norwegiæ of the late twelfth century, states that Olaf was born in the Orkney Islands after his mother fled there to escape

3201-514: Is represented in the bottom level of the Colosseum and the Parthenon , and was therefore considered to be able to hold more weight. The height-to-thickness ratio is about 8:1. The shaft of a Doric Column is almost always fluted . The Greek Doric, developed in the western Dorian region of Greece, is the heaviest and most massive of the orders. It rises from the stylobate without any base; it

3298-583: Is the only one remaining of several monumental stones which once stood around the church area. The stone has been somewhat taller, but, towering at 7.2 metres (24 ft) it is still the second largest of its kind in Norway. The stone leans in towards the church wall—the distance to the wall is in fact only 9.2 centimetres (3.6 in). Note: this list is not entirely complete, additionally medieval priests are only sporadically known. Olav Trygvason Olaf Tryggvason (960s – 9 September 1000)

3395-556: Is the part of the column that is indented in with a semi circular shape. The fillet of the column is the part between each of the flutes on the Ionic order columns. The flute width changes on all tapered columns as it goes up the shaft and stays the same on all non tapered columns. This was done to the columns to add visual interest to them. The Ionic and the Corinthian are the only orders that have fillets and flutes. The Doric style has flutes but not fillets. Doric flutes are connected at

3492-496: Is thought to derive from archaic reed-built shrines. Carved from stone, the columns were highly decorated with carved and painted hieroglyphs , texts, ritual imagery and natural motifs. Egyptian columns are famously present in the Great Hypostyle Hall of Karnak ( c.  1224 BC ), where 134 columns are lined up in sixteen rows, with some columns reaching heights of 24 metres. One of the most important type are

3589-633: The Oxford National Dictionary of Biography , states that Olaf was already baptized and that the 994 event at Andover was a confirmation of his faith, part of a Danegeld treaty in which he agreed to no longer raid in England. Following the death of Geira, it states in The Saga of Olaf that he travelled to Russia. During his stay here, he had a dream in which God spoke to him. The voice he heard said, "Hear me, you who promise to be

3686-525: The Constitution of Norway . This was Norway's first national elections. Each church parish was a constituency that elected people called "electors" who later met together in each county to elect the representatives for the assembly that was to meet in Eidsvoll later that year. The first restoration work began in 1830. The old steeple was demolished, the nave was rebuilt, and a small wooden steeple

3783-603: The Hebrides . After four years he landed on one of the Scilly Isles . He heard of a seer who lived there. Desiring to test the seer, he sent one of his men to pose as Olaf. But the seer was not fooled. So Olaf went to see the hermit, now convinced he was a real fortune teller. And the seer told him: Thou wilt become a renowned king, and do celebrated deeds. Many men wilt thou bring to faith and baptism, and both to thy own and others' good; and that thou mayst have no doubt of

3880-481: The Karmsundet strait for 750 years. King Håkon IV Håkonsson gave permission to replace the old wooden church with a stone church around the year 1250. The new stone building was not completed until nearly 1320, and was then the fourth largest in the country. The church was dedicated to St. Olav and received the status of "Royal Chapel". During the same period it became one of four "college-churches" (it appointed

3977-720: The King of Denmark ; they also swore allegiance to him. He then demanded that they all be baptized, and most reluctantly they agreed. In 997, Olaf founded his seat of government in Trondheim , where he had first held a thing with the revolters against Haakon. It was a suitable site because the River Nid twisted itself before going into the fjord, creating a peninsula that could be easily defended against terrestrial attacks by only one short wall. Both his Wendish and his Irish wife had brought Olaf wealth and good fortune, but, according to

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4074-754: The classical orders of architecture, which are most easily distinguished by the form of the column and its various elements. Their Doric , Ionic , and Corinthian orders were expanded by the Romans to include the Tuscan and Composite orders. Some of the most elaborate columns in the ancient world were those of the Persians , especially the massive stone columns erected in Persepolis . They included double-bull structures in their capitals . The Hall of Hundred Columns at Persepolis, measuring 70 × 70 metres,

4171-444: The quire was the only room left in the old church that was still usable. During the 17th century, a little wooden church was built inside the stone walls and this was used for more than 200 years. In 1814, this church served as an election church ( Norwegian : valgkirke ). Together with more than 300 other parish churches across Norway, it was a polling station for elections to the 1814 Norwegian Constituent Assembly which wrote

4268-406: The 16th century. The pointed arches, but thick walls and no pillars , suggest an early Gothic design. The walls are composed of ordinary gray stone in thickness about 1.2 to 2 metres (3 ft 11 in to 6 ft 7 in). The corners and frames around the doors and windows are of steatite (soapstone) from Tolgetjønn near Haugesund . Mary's Needle ( Norwegian : Jomfru Marias synål )

4365-449: The Haughty , queen of Sweden , but negotiations failed because of her steadfast pagan faith. Instead, he made an enemy of her, and did not hesitate to involve himself in a quarrel with King Sweyn I of Denmark by marrying Sweyn's sister Tyra, who had fled from her heathen husband Burislav , the semi-legendary "King of Wends ", in defiance of her brother's authority. Olaf continued to promote Christianity throughout his reign. He baptized

4462-612: The Mediterranean. Both King Ethelred the Unready and Olaf's sister Astrid allegedly received gifts from Olaf long after he was presumed dead. The latest sighting reported by Oddr took place in 1046. Olaf routinely used force to compel conversion to Christianity, including execution and torture of those who refused. Raud the Strong refused to convert and, after a failed attempt using a wooden pin to pry open his mouth to insert

4559-479: The Sagas, his last wife, Tyra , was his undoing, for it was on an expedition undertaken in 1000 to wrest her lands from Burislav that he was waylaid off the island Svolder by the combined Swedish, Danish, and Wendish fleets, together with the ships of Earl Haakon's sons. It has been suggested that Olaf's ambition was to rule a united Christian Scandinavia , and it is known that he made overtures of marriage to Sigrid

4656-579: The Scandinavian duel or holmgang . Olaf and his men fought Alfvine's crew and won every battle, but did not kill any of them; instead, they bound them. Alfvine was told to leave the country and never come back again. Gyda and Olaf married, and spent half their time in England and the other half in Ireland. In 995, rumours began to surface in Norway of a king in Ireland of Norwegian blood. This caught

4753-454: The Wise who had one eye torn out—his torturers were supposed to blind him but his stoic bearing during the torture led them to run away after doing only half the job—and Raud the Strong who had a venomous snake forced into body through his mouth by a red hot iron. Ultimately, Olaf's efforts at widespread conversion failed. He died at the sea Battle of Svolder when his forces were defeated by

4850-623: The alleged assassin. After questioning the purported killer and hearing him confess, King Harald had the man hanged , citing the familial bond between him and Tryggvi and his duty to avenge the latter's death. For some time after the Battle of Svolder, there were rumors that Olaf had survived his leap into the sea and had made his way to safety. Accounts reported by Oddr Snorrason included sightings of Olaf in Rome , Jerusalem , and elsewhere in Europe and

4947-569: The architecture of the Middle Ages . The classical forms were abandoned in both Byzantine and Romanesque architecture in favour of more flexible forms, with capitals often using various types of foliage decoration, and in the West scenes with figures carved in relief . During the Romanesque period, builders continued to reuse and imitate ancient Roman columns wherever possible; where new,

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5044-463: The basis of later Norse versions. Snorri Sturluson gives an extensive account of Olaf in the Heimskringla saga of circa 1230, using Oddr Snorrason's saga as his primary source. Modern historians do not assume that these late sources are accurate, and their credibility is debated. The most detailed account is named Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta ("Greatest Saga of Óláfr Tryggvason") and

5141-602: The city of Trondheim in 997. A statue dedicated to him is located in the city's central plaza. Historical information on Olaf is sparse. He is mentioned in some contemporary English sources, and some skaldic poems. The oldest narrative source mentioning him briefly is Adam of Bremen 's Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum of circa 1070. In the 1190s, two Latin versions of " Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar " were written in Iceland , by Oddr Snorrason and Gunnlaugr Leifsson – these are now lost, but are thought to form

5238-423: The column returns to its straight form when the lateral force is removed. If the column load is gradually increased, a condition is reached in which the straight form of equilibrium becomes so-called neutral equilibrium, and a small lateral force will produce a deflection that does not disappear and the column remains in this slightly bent form when the lateral force is removed. The load at which neutral equilibrium of

5335-415: The column), is greater than the proportional limit of the material, the column is experiencing inelastic buckling. Since at this stress the slope of the material's stress-strain curve, E t (called the tangent modulus ), is smaller than that below the proportional limit, the critical load at inelastic buckling is reduced. More complex formulas and procedures apply for such cases, but in its simplest form

5432-582: The column. With hinged, fixed or free end support conditions the deflected shape in neutral equilibrium of an initially straight column with uniform cross section throughout its length always follows a partial or composite sinusoidal curve shape, and the critical load is given by f c r ≡ π 2 E I m i n L 2 ( 1 ) {\displaystyle f_{cr}\equiv {\frac {\pi ^{2}{\textit {E}}I_{min}}{{L}^{2}}}\qquad (1)} where E = elastic modulus of

5529-432: The construction site. A reinforced concrete column is extended by having the steel reinforcing bars protrude a few inches or feet above the top of the concrete, then placing the next level of reinforcing bars to overlap, and pouring the concrete of the next level. A steel column is extended by welding or bolting splice plates on the flanges and webs or walls of the columns to provide a few inches or feet of load transfer from

5626-537: The country until the untimely death of Geira. Holy Roman Emperor Otto II assembled a great army of Saxons , Franks , Frisians , and Wends to fight the Norse pagan Danes . Olaf was part of this army because his father-in-law was king of Wendland. Otto's army met the armies of King Harald Bluetooth and Haakon Jarl , the ruler of Norway under the Danish king, at Danevirke , a great wall near Schleswig . Otto's army

5723-427: The creation of by Norwegian artist Bernhard Greve (1886-1962) from Lofthus who worked mainly with stained glass, fresco, and ceramic sculpture. The windows portrayed important events in the life of Christ : baptism, passion, ascension, and resurrection. The altar, baptismal font , and pulpit were designed in the 1920s by Norwegian functionalist architect Eivind Moestue (1893-1977). The baptismal basin dates back to

5820-434: The critical buckling load formula is given as Equation (3), f c r ≡ F y − F y 2 4 π 2 E ( K L r 2 ) ( 3 ) {\displaystyle f_{cr}\equiv {F_{y}}-{\frac {F_{y}^{2}}{4\pi ^{2}E}}\left({\frac {KL}{r^{2}}}\right)\qquad (3)} A column with

5917-420: The ear of Jarl Haakon, who sent Thorer Klakka to Ireland, posing as a merchant, to see if he was the son of Tryggve Olafson. Haakon told Thorer that if it were him, to lure him to Norway, so Haakon could have him under his power. Thorer befriended Olaf and told him of the situation in Norway, that Jarl Haakon had become unpopular with the populace, because he often took daughters of the elite as concubines , which

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6014-618: The early 11th century, a Viking chieftain named Tryggvi invaded Norway, claiming to be the son of Olaf and Gyda. His invasion was defeated by forces loyal to Cnut the Great 's son Svein Knutsson . An account preserved in Morkinskinna relates that Tryggvi was killed by a farmer after the battle. Many years later, when Harald Hardrada was king of Norway, he passed by the site of the battle. The king met an old friend of his who pointed out

6111-430: The emphasis was on elegance and beauty, as illustrated by twisted columns. Often they were decorated with mosaics. Renaissance architecture was keen to revive the classical vocabulary and styles, and the informed use and variation of the classical orders remained fundamental to the training of architects throughout Baroque , Rococo and Neo-classical architecture . Early columns were constructed of stone, some out of

6208-638: The explorer Leif Ericson , who took a priest with him back to Greenland to convert the rest of his kin. Olaf also converted the people and Earl of the Orkney Islands to Christianity. At that time, the Orkney Islands were part of Norway. While Olaf sent missionaries to other lands and baptized dignitaries who visited Norway to spread Christianity, within his own kingdom he used forced conversion through means such as exile, hostage taking, mutilation, torture, and death for those who refused as well as destroying pagan temples. Noted victims include Thorlief

6305-454: The head. A mob followed the young boy as he fled to his protector Queen Allogia , with the intent of killing him for his misdeed. Only after Allogia had paid blood money for Olaf did the mob calm down. As Olaf grew older, Vladimir made him chief over his men-at-arms, but after a couple years the king became wary of Olaf and his popularity with his soldiers. Fearing he might be a threat to the safety of his reign, Vladimir stopped treating Olaf as

6402-480: The killers of Olaf's father. Another late 12th-century source, Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum , states that Olaf's mother fled to Orkney with Olaf when he was three years old for the same reason. All the sagas agree that Olaf eventually came to Kievan Rus' , specifically the court of Vladimir the Great of Kiev . The version in Heimskringla is the most elaborate, but also the latest, and introduces elements to

6499-526: The king himself was gone." Other sagas suggest that one way or another Olaf made his way to the shore; perhaps by swimming, perhaps with the help of angels, most likely rescued by one of the Wendish ships present. After his escape, Olaf supposedly sought salvation for his soul abroad, perhaps joining a monastery. Mesta describes a series of "sightings" of him in the Holy Land, the last in the 1040s. In

6596-556: The later Mycenaean civilization , particularly in the megaron or hall at the heart of their palaces. The importance of columns and their reference to palaces and therefore authority is evidenced in their use in heraldic motifs such as the famous lion-gate of Mycenae where two lions stand each side of a column. Being made of wood these early columns have not survived, but their stone bases have and through these we may see their use and arrangement in these palace buildings. The Egyptians, Persians and other civilizations mostly used columns for

6693-486: The least weight, and also has the slenderest ratio of thickness to height. Height to width ratio is about 10:1. The Composite order draws its name from the capital being a composite of the Ionic and Corinthian capitals. The acanthus of the Corinthian column already has a scroll-like element, so the distinction is sometimes subtle. Generally the Composite is similar to the Corinthian in proportion and employment, often in

6790-404: The man who informed her to invite them to her kingdom, telling him that she would have them over for a feast. Once Olaf and his men arrived, Queen Geira welcomed them in, held a feast for them, and engaged in very meaningful conversation with Olaf. This conversation led to Olaf and his men staying for a few days, and a relationship starting between the two leaders. Eventually these two would agree to

6887-514: The material, I min = the minimal moment of inertia of the cross section, and L = actual length of the column between its two end supports. A variant of (1) is given by f c r ≡ π 2 E T ( K L r ) 2 ( 2 ) {\displaystyle f_{cr}\equiv {\frac {\pi ^{2}E_{T}}{({\frac {KL}{r}})^{2}}}\qquad (2)} where r = radius of gyration of column cross-section which

6984-403: The papyriform columns. The origin of these columns goes back to the 5th Dynasty . They are composed of lotus (papyrus) stems which are drawn together into a bundle decorated with bands: the capital, instead of opening out into the shape of a bellflower , swells out and then narrows again like a flower in bud. The base, which tapers to take the shape of a half-sphere like the stem of the lotus, has

7081-454: The period. However, according to the architectural historian Vitruvius , the column was created by the sculptor Callimachus , probably an Athenian , who drew acanthus leaves growing around a votive basket. In fact, the oldest known Corinthian capital was found in Bassae , dated at 427 BC. It is sometimes called the feminine order because it is on the top level of the Colosseum and holding up

7178-456: The plinth alone, sometimes separated from the column by a convex circular cushion known as a torus . More elaborate bases include two toruses, separated by a concave section or channel known as a scotia or trochilus. Scotiae could also occur in pairs, separated by a convex section called an astragal , or bead, narrower than a torus. Sometimes these sections were accompanied by still narrower convex sections, known as annulets or fillets. At

7275-422: The possession of a man named Klerkon, together with his foster father Thorolf and his son Thorgils. Klerkon considered Thorolf too old to be useful as a slave and killed him, and then sold the two boys to a man named Klerk for a ram. Olaf was then sold to a man called Reas for a fine cloak. Six years later, Sigurd Eirikson traveled to Estonia to collect taxes for King Vladimir. He saw a boy who did not appear to be

7372-488: The practical purpose of holding up the roof inside a building, preferring outside walls to be decorated with reliefs or painting, but the Ancient Greeks, followed by the Romans, loved to use them on the outside as well, and the extensive use of columns on the interior and exterior of buildings is one of the most characteristic features of classical architecture, in buildings like the Parthenon . The Greeks developed

7469-400: The rebels they accepted him as their king, and together they started to search for Haakon. They eventually came to the farm where Haakon and Kark were hiding, but did not find them. Olaf held a meeting just outside the swine-sty and promised a great reward for the man who killed Haakon. The two men in the hole heard this speech, and Haakon became distrustful of Kark, fearing he would kill him for

7566-407: The reward. He could not leave the pigsty, nor could he stay awake indefinitely, and when he fell asleep Kark decapitated Haakon with a knife. The next day Kark went to Olaf and presented him the head of Haakon. King Olaf did not reward him, and instead decapitated him. After his confirmation as King of Norway, Olaf traveled to the parts of Norway that had not been under the rule of Haakon, but that of

7663-406: The same moldings as the base. In the case of free-standing columns, the decorative elements atop the shaft are known as a finial . Modern columns may be constructed out of steel, poured or precast concrete, or brick, left bare or clad in an architectural covering, or veneer. Used to support an arch, an impost , or pier, is the topmost member of a column. The bottom-most part of the arch, called

7760-436: The springing, rests on the impost. As the axial load on a perfectly straight slender column with elastic material properties is increased in magnitude, this ideal column passes through three states: stable equilibrium, neutral equilibrium, and instability. The straight column under load is in stable equilibrium if a lateral force, applied between the two ends of the column, produces a small lateral deflection which disappears and

7857-603: The story that are not found in earlier sources. It states that Olaf was born shortly after the murder of his father in 963, while other sources suggest a date between 964 and 969. The later dates cast doubt over Olaf's claim to be of Harald Fairhair's kin, and the legitimacy of his claim to the throne. Snorri Sturluson claims in Olaf Tryggvson's saga that Olaf was born on an islet in Fjærlandsvatnet, where his mother Astrid Eiriksdottir, daughter of Eirik Bjodaskalle,

7954-445: The top of the shaft is a capital , upon which the roof or other architectural elements rest. In the case of Doric columns, the capital usually consists of a round, tapering cushion, or echinus, supporting a square slab, known as an abax or abacus . Ionic capitals feature a pair of volutes , or scrolls, while Corinthian capitals are decorated with reliefs in the form of acanthus leaves. Either type of capital could be accompanied by

8051-431: The truth of this answer, listen to these tokens. When thou comest to thy ships many of thy people will conspire against thee, and then a battle will follow in which many of thy men will fall, and thou wilt be wounded almost to death, and carried upon a shield to thy ship; yet after seven days thou shalt be well of thy wounds, and immediately thou shalt let thyself be baptized. After the meeting mutineers attacked Olaf, and he

8148-420: The upper tiers of colonnades . Height to width ratio is about 11:1 or 12:1. A Solomonic column , sometimes called " barley sugar ", begins on a base and ends in a capital, which may be of any order, but the shaft twists in a tight spiral, producing a dramatic, serpentine effect of movement. Solomonic columns were developed in the ancient world, but remained rare there. A famous marble set, probably 2nd century,

8245-439: The upper to the lower column section. A timber column is usually extended by the use of a steel tube or wrapped-around sheet-metal plate bolted onto the two connecting timber sections. A column that carries the load down to a foundation must have means to transfer the load without overstressing the foundation material. Reinforced concrete and masonry columns are generally built directly on top of concrete foundations. When seated on

8342-472: The water. German authorities demanded the steeple be demolished. Many people were engaged in the task of saving it, and they persuaded the German military to let them camouflage the whole church with timber . This was to be done in 5 weeks, but the whole job lasted a year. The front of the church bears a couple of bullet holes. The stained glass windows were ordered for the 700th anniversary in 1950. They were

8439-532: The winter. Olaf accepted and after courting the Queen, they were married. Olaf began to reclaim the baronies which while under Geira's rule had refused to pay taxes. After these successful campaigns, he began raiding again both in Skåne and Gotland . Olaf Tryggvason's relationship with Geira began when Geira was warned that there were a large number of ships sitting in the harbor outside of her kingdom. Queen Geira told

8536-519: The young boy, but to no avail. After a short scuffle Astrid (with her son) fled again. This time their destination was Gardarike ( Kiev ), where Astrid's brother Sigurd was in the service of Vladimir the Great . Olaf was three years old when they set sail on a merchant ship for Novgorod . The journey was not successful: in the Baltic Sea they were captured by Estonian vikings , and the people aboard were either killed or taken as slaves. Olaf became

8633-458: Was King of Norway from 995 to 1000. He was the son of Tryggvi Olafsson , king of Viken ( Vingulmark , and Rånrike ), and, according to later sagas, the great-grandson of Harald Fairhair , first King of Norway. He is numbered as Olaf I . Olaf was important in the conversion of the Norse to Christianity, but he did so forcibly within his own kingdom. He is said to have built the first Christian church in Norway in 995, and to have founded

8730-718: Was brought to Old St. Peter's Basilica by Constantine I , and placed round the saint's shrine, and was thus familiar throughout the Middle Ages, by which time they were thought to have been removed from the Temple of Jerusalem . The style was used in bronze by Bernini for his spectacular St. Peter's baldachin , actually a ciborium (which displaced Constantine's columns), and thereafter became very popular with Baroque and Rococo church architects, above all in Latin America , where they were very often used, especially on

8827-586: Was built by the Achaemenid king Darius I (524–486 BC). Many of the ancient Persian columns are standing, some being more than 30 metres tall. Tall columns with bull's head capitals were used for porticoes and to support the roofs of the hypostylehall, partly inspired by the ancient Egyptian precedent. Since the columns carried timber beams rather than stone, they could be taller, slimmer and more widely spaced than Egyptian ones. Columns, or at least large structural exterior ones, became much less significant in

8924-478: Was erected on the top. In the 1920s the church was once again restored in a manner which was more similar to its original architecture. A new stone steeple was built and the interior renewed. The German occupation in World War II became dramatic for the church. German officials asserted that the high steeple was used as a landmark for Allied planes, coming in over the strait of Karmsund to drop bombs in

9021-599: Was hiding from her husband's killers, led by Harald Greycloak , the son of Eirik Bloodaxe . Greycloak and his brothers had seized the throne from Haakon the Good . Astrid fled to her father's home in Oppland, then went on to Sweden where she thought she and Olaf would be safe. Greycloak sent emissaries to the king of Sweden, and asked for permission to take the boy back to Norway, where he would be raised by Greycloak's mother Gunhild. The Swedish king gave them men to help them claim

9118-477: Was his right as ruler. He quickly grew tired of them and sent them home after a week or two. He had also been weakened by his fighting with the Danish king, due to his rejection of the Christian faith. Olaf seized this opportunity, and sailed for Norway. When he arrived many men had already revolted against Haakon, who was forced to hide in a hole dug in a pigsty , together with his slave, Kark . When Olaf met

9215-399: Was replaced by a stone cylinder. The Doric order is the oldest and simplest of the classical orders. It is composed of a vertical cylinder that is wider at the bottom. It generally has neither a base nor a detailed capital . It is instead often topped with an inverted frustum of a shallow cone or a cylindrical band of carvings. It is often referred to as the masculine order because it

9312-662: Was unable to break the fortification, so he changed tactics and sailed around it to Jutland with a large fleet. Otto won a large battle there, and forced Harald and Haakon with their armies to convert to Christianity. The constituents of Otto's army then returned to their homelands. Harald held to his new religion, but Haakon returned to worshipping the pagan gods when he came home. After Olaf had spent three years in Wendland, his wife Geira died. He felt so much sorrow from her death that he could no longer bear to stay in Wendland, and set out to plunder in 984. He raided from Friesland to

9409-549: Was wounded but survived, and as a result he converted to Christianity. David Hugh Farmer, in the Oxford Dictionary of Saints , writes 'it is tempting' to identify the seer with Saint Lide who lived on the island of St Helen's in the Isles of Scilly . By another account, Saint Ælfheah of Canterbury baptized him near Andover , Hampshire , England in 994. However, Henrietta Leyser, the author of Ælfheah's entry in

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