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55-444: Byte (stylized as BYTE ) was a microcomputer magazine , influential in the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s because of its wide-ranging editorial coverage. Byte started in 1975, shortly after the first personal computers appeared as kits advertised in the back of electronics magazines. Byte was published monthly, with an initial yearly subscription price of $ 10. Whereas many magazines were dedicated to specific systems or

110-595: A computer based on a microprocessor – the Intel 8008 8-bit microprocessor. This Micral-N was marketed in early 1973 as a "Micro-ordinateur" or microcomputer , mainly for scientific and process-control applications. About a hundred Micral-N were installed in the next two years, followed by a new version based on the Intel 8080. Meanwhile, another French team developed the Alvan, a small computer for office automation which found clients in banks and other sectors. The first version

165-463: A computer had to be big in size to be powerful, and thus decided to market them as calculators. Additionally, at that time, people were more likely to buy calculators than computers, and, purchasing agents also preferred the term "calculator" because purchasing a "computer" required additional layers of purchasing authority approvals. The Datapoint 2200 , made by CTC in 1970, was also comparable to microcomputers. While it contains no microprocessor,

220-431: A computer. This was later spun off to become the magazine Circuit Cellar , focusing on embedded computer applications. Significant articles in this period included the insertion of floppy disk drives into S-100 computers, publication of source code for various computer languages (Tiny C , BASIC , assemblers ), and coverage of the first microcomputer operating system , CP/M . The first four issues were produced in

275-422: A disk operating system included in a series of programmable read-only memory chips (PROMs); 8 Kilobytes of RAM; IBM's Basic Assembly Language (BAL); a hard drive; a color display; a printer output; a 150 bit/s serial interface for connecting to a mainframe; and even the world's first microcomputer front panel. In early 1973, Sord Computer Corporation (now Toshiba Personal Computer System Corporation ) completed

330-492: A few years of interruption. The Arabic edition also ended abruptly. Many of Byte ' s columnists migrated their writing to personal web sites. One such site was science fiction author Jerry Pournelle 's weblog The View From Chaos Manor derived from a long-standing column in Byte , describing computers from a power user 's point of view. After the closure of Byte magazine, Pournelle's column continued to be published in

385-414: A follow up is the decision to create BYTE magazine using the facilities of Green Publishing Inc. I will end up with the editorial focus for the magazine; with the business end being managed by Green Publishing. To advertise the new magazine, Green contacted a number of the companies that had been advertising in 73 and asked for their contact lists. He then sent letters out to these people telling them about

440-489: A magazine dedicated to the newly emerging microcomputer market. In 1974, Carl Helmers published a series of six articles that detailed the design and construction of his "Experimenter's Computer System", a personal computer based on the Intel 8008 microprocessor. In January 1975 this became the monthly ECS magazine with 400 subscribers. Green contacted Helmers and proposed starting a new magazine to be known as Byte. The deal

495-419: A minicomputer or time-sharing service the opportunity to automate business functions, without (usually) hiring a full-time staff to operate the computers. A representative system of this era would have used an S100 bus , an 8-bit processor such as an Intel 8080 or Zilog Z80 , and either CP/M or MP/M operating system. The increasing availability and power of desktop computers for personal use attracted

550-436: A peer of Rolling Stone and Playboy , and others such as David Bunnell of PC Magazine aspired to emulate its reputation and success. It was the only computer publication on the 1981 Folio 400 list of largest magazines. Byte ' s 1982 average number of pages was 543, and the number of paid advertising pages grew by more than 1,000 while most magazines' amount of advertising did not change. Its circulation of 420,000

605-684: A solid state machine designed with a microprocessor. In the US the earliest models such as the Altair 8800 were often sold as kits to be assembled by the user, and came with as little as 256 bytes of RAM , and no input/output devices other than indicator lights and switches, useful as a proof of concept to demonstrate what such a simple device could do. As microprocessors and semiconductor memory became less expensive, microcomputers grew cheaper and easier to use. All these improvements in cost and usability resulted in an explosion in their popularity during

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660-639: A start which reads like a romantic light opera with an episode or two reminiscent of the Keystone Cops , Byte magazine finally has moved into separate offices of its own." Green was not happy about losing Byte and decided to start a new magazine called Kilobyte . He announced these intentions early, and advertised the upcoming magazine in 73 , with the goal of shipping the first issue in December 1976 (the January 1977 edition). Byte quickly took out

715-557: A time, although they can often be modified with software or hardware to concurrently serve more than one user. Microcomputers fit well on or under desks or tables, so that they are within easy access of users. Bigger computers like minicomputers , mainframes , and supercomputers take up large cabinets or even dedicated rooms. A microcomputer comes equipped with at least one type of data storage, usually RAM . Although some microcomputers (particularly early 8-bit home micros) perform tasks using RAM alone, some form of secondary storage

770-450: A trademark on "KILOBYTE" as the name for a cartoon series in Byte magazine, and threatened to sue for trademark violations. This forced Green to change the name of the new magazine to Kilobaud . There was competition and animosity between Byte Publications and 73 Inc. but both remained in the small town of Peterborough, New Hampshire . In April 1979, owner/publisher Virginia Williamson (née Londner Green) sold Byte to McGraw-Hill . At

825-806: Is normally desirable. In the early days of home micros, this was often a data cassette deck (in many cases as an external unit). Later, secondary storage (particularly in the form of floppy disk and hard disk drives) were built into the microcomputer case. Although they did not contain any microprocessors, but were built around transistor-transistor logic (TTL), Hewlett-Packard calculators as far back as 1968 had various levels of programmability comparable to microcomputers. The HP 9100B (1968) had rudimentary conditional (if) statements, statement line numbers, jump statements ( go to ), registers that could be used as variables, and primitive subroutines. The programming language resembled assembly language in many ways. Later models incrementally added more features, including

880-534: Is sometimes called the first generation of microcomputers. Many companies such as DEC , National Semiconductor , Texas Instruments offered their microcomputers for use in terminal control, peripheral device interface control and industrial machine control. There were also machines for engineering development and hobbyist personal use. In 1975, the Processor Technology SOL-20 was designed, which consisted of one board which included all

935-450: The BASIC programming language (HP 9830A in 1971). Some models had tape storage and small printers. However, displays were limited to one line at a time. The HP 9100A was referred to as a personal computer in an advertisement in a 1968 Science magazine, but that advertisement was quickly dropped. HP was reluctant to sell them as "computers" because the perception at that time was that

990-411: The Byte name back when it officially relaunched Byte as Byte.com on July 11, 2011. According to the site, the mission of the new Byte was: ...to examine technology in the context of the consumerization of IT. The subject relates closely to important IT issues like security and manageability. It's an issue that reaches both IT and users, and it's an issue where both groups need to listen carefully to

1045-515: The instruction set of its custom TTL processor was the basis of the instruction set for the Intel 8008 , and for practical purposes the system behaves approximately as if it contains an 8008. This is because Intel was the contractor in charge of developing the Datapoint's CPU, but ultimately CTC rejected the 8008 design because it needed 20 support chips. Another early system, the Kenbak-1 ,

1100-549: The Altair itself was only a mild commercial success, it helped spark a huge industry. By 1977, the introduction of the second microcomputer generation as consumer goods , known as home computers , made them considerably easier to use than their predecessors because their predecessors' operation often demanded thorough familiarity with practical electronics. The ability to connect to a monitor (screen) or TV set allowed visual manipulation of text and numbers. The BASIC language, which

1155-623: The IBM PC itself was widely imitated, as well as the term. The component parts were commonly available to producers and the BIOS was reverse engineered through cleanroom design techniques. IBM PC compatible "clones" became commonplace, and the terms "personal computer", and especially "PC", stuck with the general public, often specifically for a computer compatible with DOS (or nowadays Windows). Monitors, keyboards and other devices for input and output may be integrated or separate. Computer memory in

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1210-702: The SMP80/08, which used the Intel 8008 microprocessor. The SMP80/08, however, did not have a commercial release. After the first general-purpose microprocessor, the Intel 8080 , was announced in April 1974, Sord announced the SMP80/x, the first microcomputer to use the 8080, in May 1974. Virtually all early microcomputers were essentially boxes with lights and switches; one had to read and understand binary numbers and machine language to program and use them (the Datapoint 2200

1265-636: The Turkish editions of PC World , which was soon renamed as PC Life in Turkey. Nikkei Byte , with the name licensed from McGraw Hill, was the leading computer magazine in Japan, published by Nikkei Business Publications . It continued Pournelle's column in translation as a major feature for years after Byte closed in the U.S. In 1999, CMP revived Byte as a web-only publication, from 2002 accessible by subscription . It closed in 2009. UBM TechWeb brought

1320-586: The account and $ 1/hour for X.25 access. Unlike CompuServe , access at higher speeds was not surcharged. Later, gateways permitted email communication outside the system. By 1990, the magazine was about half an inch (1.25 cm) in thickness and had a subscription price of $ 56/year. Around 1993, Byte began to develop a web presence. It acquired the domain name byte.com and began to host discussion boards and post selected editorial content. Editions were published in Japan , Brazil , Germany , and an Arabic edition

1375-484: The artwork of Robert Tinney . These covers made Byte visually distinctive. However, issues featuring cover stories introducing significant hardware such as the Apple Lisa , Apple Macintosh , IBM PC and Commodore Amiga featured product photographs on the covers. From approximately 1980 to 1985, cartoonist Tom Sloan drew full page multipanel cartoons. They covered various computer/tech related themes. Several of

1430-439: The attention of more software developers. As the industry matured, the market for personal computers standardized around IBM PC compatibles running DOS , and later Windows . Modern desktop computers, video game consoles , laptops , tablet PCs , and many types of handheld devices , including mobile phones , pocket calculators , and industrial embedded systems , may all be considered examples of microcomputers according to

1485-518: The business manager of 73 Inc. since December 1974. She incorporated Green Publishing in March 1975 to take over publication. The first issue of the new magazine was the September 1975 edition. Articles in the first issue included Which Microprocessor For You? by Hal Chamberlin , Write Your Own Assembler by Dan Fylstra and Serial Interface by Don Lancaster . Among the more important articles

1540-520: The definition given above. By the early 2000s, everyday use of the expression "microcomputer" (and in particular "micro") declined significantly from its peak in the mid-1980s. The term is most commonly associated with the most popular 8-bit home computers (such as the Apple II , ZX Spectrum , Commodore 64 , BBC Micro , and TRS-80 ) and small-business CP/M -based microcomputers. In colloquial usage, "microcomputer" has been largely supplanted by

1595-446: The early computer magazines by larger publishers. By this time the magazine had taken on a more serious journal-like atmosphere and began to refer to itself as "the small systems journal". It became an influential publication; Byte was selected as the medium used by Xerox PARC to publicize Smalltalk in 1981. Like many generalist magazines, Byte suffered in the 1990s due to declining advertising sales. McGraw-Hill's publishing arm

1650-501: The form of RAM , and at least one other less volatile, memory storage device are usually combined with the CPU on a system bus in one unit. Other devices that make up a complete microcomputer system include batteries, a power supply unit, a keyboard and various input/output devices used to convey information to and from a human operator ( printers , monitors , human interface devices ). Microcomputers are designed to serve only one user at

1705-410: The home or business user's perspective, Byte covered developments in the entire field of "small computers and software", and sometimes other computing fields such as supercomputers and high-reliability computing . Coverage was in-depth with much technical detail, rather than user-oriented. The company was purchased by McGraw-Hill in 1979, a watershed event that led to the rapid purchase of many of

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1760-629: The introduction of the minicomputer , although Isaac Asimov used the term in his short story " The Dying Night " as early as 1956 (published in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction in July that year). Most notably, the microcomputer replaced the many separate components that made up the minicomputer's CPU with one integrated microprocessor chip . In 1973, the French Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA)

1815-581: The late 1970s and early 1980s. A large number of computer makers packaged microcomputers for use in small business applications. By 1979, many companies such as Cromemco , Processor Technology , IMSAI , North Star Computers , Southwest Technical Products Corporation , Ohio Scientific , Altos Computer Systems , Morrow Designs and others produced systems designed for resourceful end users or consulting firms to deliver business systems such as accounting, database management and word processing to small businesses. This allowed businesses unable to afford leasing of

1870-431: The magazine changed editorial policies. It gradually de-emphasized the do-it-yourself electronics and software articles, and began running product reviews. It continued its wide-ranging coverage of hardware and software, but now it reported "what it does" and "how it works", not "how to do it". The editorial focus remained on home and personal computers . By the early 1980s, Byte had become an "elite" magazine, seen as

1925-486: The new magazine. This resulted in about 20% of the contacts subscribing, a massive conversion rate. Just prior to planning Byte , Green had a run-in with the Internal Revenue Service . When he told his lawyer that he planned on starting a new magazine, he was advised to put it in someone else's name. He had recently gotten back together with his ex-wife, Virginia Londner Green , who had been listed as

1980-515: The offices of 73 and Wayne Green was listed as the publisher. One day in November 1975 Green came back to the office and found that the Byte magazine staff had moved out and taken the January issue with them. For the February 1976 issue, the company changed its name to Byte Publications. Carl Helmers was a co-owner of Byte Publications. The February issue has a short story about the move; "After

2035-673: The original cartoons are now in the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California. Around 1985, Byte started an online service called BIX ( Byte Information eXchange) which was a text-only BBS-style site running on the CoSy conferencing software, also used by McGraw-Hill internally. Access was via local dial-in or, for additional hourly charges, the Tymnet X.25 network. Monthly rates were $ 13/month for

2090-468: The parts of the computer system. The SOL-20 had built-in EPROM software which eliminated the need for rows of switches and lights. The MITS Altair just mentioned played an instrumental role in sparking significant hobbyist interest, which itself eventually led to the founding and success of many well-known personal computer hardware and software companies, such as Microsoft and Apple Computer . Although

2145-433: The requirements of the other: IT may wish to hold off on allowing devices and software onto the network when they haven't been properly tested and can't be properly supported. But the use of these devices in the enterprise has the air of inevitability for a good reason. They make users more productive and users are demanding them. The Byte.com launch editor-in-chief was tech journalist Gina Smith . On September 26, 2011, Smith

2200-407: The term personal computer became generally used for microcomputers compatible with the IBM PC architecture ( IBM PC–compatible ). Virginia Londner Green Virginia Williamson (also Virginia Londner Green and Virginia Peschke ) was the co-founder, owner and publisher of Byte magazine. She founded the magazine in 1975 together with her ex-husband, Wayne Green the founder/publisher of

2255-452: The term " personal computer " or "PC", which specifies a computer that has been designed to be used by one individual at a time, a term first coined in 1959. IBM first promoted the term "personal computer" to differentiate the IBM PC from CP/M -based microcomputers likewise targeted at the small-business market, and also IBM's own mainframes and minicomputers. However, following its release,

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2310-462: The time, Byte' s paid circulation was 156,000 readers, making it second only to Business Week in the McGraw-Hill's technology magazine portfolio. She remained publisher until 1983 and became a vice president of McGraw-Hill Publications Company. From August 1979, the magazine switched to computerized typesetting, using a Compugraphic system. Shortly after the IBM PC was introduced, in 1981,

2365-493: Was a striking exception, bearing a modern design based on a monitor, keyboard, and tape and disk drives). Of the early "box of switches"-type microcomputers, the MITS Altair 8800 (1975) was arguably the most famous. Most of these simple, early microcomputers were sold as electronic kits —bags full of loose components which the buyer had to solder together before the system could be used. The period from about 1971 to 1976

2420-565: Was announced in both magazines in May. Green's editorial column in the August 1975 issue of 73 started with this item: The response to computer-type articles in 73 has been so enthusiastic that we here in Peterborough got carried away. On May 25th we made a deal with the publisher of a small (400 circulation) computer hobby magazine to take over as editor of a new publication which would start in August ... Byte . The last issue of ECS

2475-535: Was based on LSI chips with an Intel 8008 as peripheral controller (keyboard, monitor and printer), before adopting the Zilog Z80 as main processor. In late 1972, a Sacramento State University team led by Bill Pentz built the Sac State 8008 computer, able to handle thousands of patients' medical records. The Sac State 8008 was designed with the Intel 8008. It had a full set of hardware and software components :

2530-474: Was easier to learn and use than raw machine language, became a standard feature. These features were already common in minicomputers , with which many hobbyists and early produces were familiar. In 1979, the launch of the VisiCalc spreadsheet (initially for the Apple II ) first turned the microcomputer from a hobby for computer enthusiasts into a business tool. After the 1981 release by IBM of its IBM PC ,

2585-479: Was looking for a computer able to measure agricultural hygrometry . To answer this request, a team of French engineers of the computer technology company R2E, led by its Head of Development, François Gernelle , created the first available microprocessor-based microcomputer, the Micral N. The same year the company filed their patents with the term "Micro-ordinateur", a literal equivalent of "Microcomputer", to designate

2640-658: Was published in Jordan. The readership of Byte and advertising revenue were declining when McGraw-Hill sold the magazine to CMP Media , a successful publisher of specialized computer magazines, in May 1998. The magazine's editors and writers expected its new owner to revitalize Byte , but CMP ceased publication with the July 1998 issue, laid off all the staff and shut down Byte ' s rather large product-testing lab. Publication of Byte in Germany and Japan continued uninterrupted. The Turkish edition resumed publication after

2695-420: Was published on 12 May 1975. In June, subscribers were mailed a notice announcing Byte magazine. Helmers wrote to another hobbyist newsletter, Micro-8 Computer User Group Newsletter , and described his new job as editor of Byte magazine: I got a note in the mail about two weeks ago from Wayne Green, publisher of '73 Magazine' essentially saying hello and why don't you come up and talk a bit. The net result of

2750-429: Was released in 1971. Like the Datapoint 2200, it used small-scale integrated transistor–transistor logic instead of a microprocessor. It was marketed as an educational and hobbyist tool, but it was not a commercial success; production ceased shortly after introduction. In late 1972, a French team headed by François Gernelle within a small company, Réalisations & Etudes Electroniques (R2E), developed and patented

2805-423: Was replaced by Larry Seltzer. In January 2012 American science fiction and horror author F. Paul Wilson began writing for byte.com, mostly in the persona of his best-known character Repairman Jack . Byte.com closed in 2013. Microcomputer The abbreviation "micro" was common during the 1970s and 1980s, but has since fallen out of common usage. The term microcomputer came into popular use after

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2860-467: Was sold to CMP Media in May 1998, and the new owners immediately laid off almost everyone in the magazine arm, ending publication with the already-complete July edition. The associated website continued to draw 600,000 page views a month, prompting the owners to re-open the magazine in a pure online format in 1999. It continued as an online publication until 2009, when it shut down, only to be revived in 2011 and then shut down for good in 2013. Wayne Green

2915-488: Was the editor and publisher of amateur radio magazine 73 . In late 1974 and throughout 1975, 73 published a number of articles on the use of computers, which resulted in a significant response from the readers. The Altair 8800 was announced in January 1975, sparking off intense interest among those working technical fields, including the amateur radio market. Green knew of the Altair because MITS had previously been an advertiser in 73 . This led Green to begin plans for

2970-491: Was the introduction of the Kansas City standard for storing data on cassette tape , which was used by most machines of the era. It included advertisements from Godbout , MITS , Processor Technology , SCELBI , and Sphere , among others. Until the December 1988 issue, a continuing feature was Ciarcia's Circuit Cellar , a column in which electronic engineer Steve Ciarcia described small projects to modify or attach to

3025-469: Was the third highest of all computer magazines. Byte earned $ 9 million from revenue of $ 36.6 million in 1983, twice the average profit margin for the magazine industry. It remained successful while many other magazines failed in 1984 during economic weakness in the computer industry. The October 1984 issue had about 300 pages of ads sold at an average of $ 6,000 per page. Starting with the December 1975 issue through September 1990, Byte covers often featured

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