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34-593: Bono State (or Bonoman ) was a trading state created by the Bono people , located in what is now southern Ghana . Bonoman was a medieval Akan state that stretched across the modern Ghanaian regions of Bono , Bono East and Ahafo (respectively named after the Bono and Ahafo peoples) and the Eastern Ivory Coast . It is generally accepted as the origin of the subgroups of the Akan people who migrated out of

68-515: A common building material for wall and ceiling surfaces, in which a series of nailed wooden strips are covered with plaster smoothed into a flat surface. In many regions this building method has itself been overtaken by drywall construction using plasterboard sheets. The wattle is made by weaving thin branches (either whole, or more usually split) or slats between upright stakes. The wattle may be made as loose panels, slotted between timber framing to make infill panels, or made in place to form

102-521: A mother owns a child. The queenmother is always seen as the daughter of the moon by Bonos, who symbolizes the female characteristics of Nyame , the Supreme Being who created the universe by giving birth to the sun (Amowia). The sun is therefore regarded as the son of the moon and is personified as the Sungod. The queenmother therefore is represented as the great Mother-Moon-goddess, the king as

136-434: A system of augered holes on one side and short chiseled grooves along the other. The holes (along with holes of square paneling) are drilled at a slight angle towards the outer face of each stud. This allows room for upright hazels to be tied to ledgers from the inside of the building. The horizontal ledgers are placed every two to three feet (0.6 to 0.9 metres) with whole hazel rods positioned upright top to bottom and lashed to

170-491: Is a composite building method used for making walls and buildings, in which a woven lattice of wooden strips called " wattle " is "daubed" with a sticky material usually made of some combination of wet soil, clay, sand, animal dung and straw. Wattle and daub has been used for at least 6,000 years and is still an important construction method in many parts of the world. Many historic buildings include wattle and daub construction. The wattle and daub technique has been used since

204-413: Is provided by straw, hair, hay or other fibrous materials, and helps to hold the mix together as well as to control shrinkage and provide flexibility. The daub may be mixed by hand, or by treading – either by humans or livestock . It is then applied to the wattle and allowed to dry, and often then whitewashed to increase its resistance to rain. Sometimes there can be more than one layer of daub. At

238-1184: The Neolithic period. It was common for houses of Linear pottery and Rössen cultures of middle Europe, but is also found in Western Asia ( Çatalhöyük , Shillourokambos ) as well as in North America ( Mississippian culture ) and South America ( Brazil ). In Africa it is common in the architecture of traditional houses such as those of the Ashanti people . Its usage dates back at least 6,000 years. There are suggestions that construction techniques such as lath and plaster and even cob may have evolved from wattle and daub. Fragments from prehistoric wattle and daub buildings have been found in Africa, Europe, Mesoamerica and North America. Evidence for wattle and daub (or "wattle and reed") fire pits, storage bins, and buildings shows up in Egyptian archaeological sites such as Merimda and El Omari, dating back to

272-873: The Portuguese arrived at the Gold Coast , Begho of Bonoman was one of the largest ancient cities in West Africa with an estimated population 12,000. Bono Manso , another historic city, played a noteworthy role in the Atlantic slave trade , and in contemporary times, diaspora Africans often visit to learn more about their history. Traditionally, Bono is the hub of Akan cultures, and many aspects of Akan culture originate from Bono, e.g. clans (abusua) , ntoro , Akan drums ( fontomfrom , atumpan ), Akan nomenclature , umbrellas used for kings, adinkra symbols , fly whisk , ivory trumpets , head gears , swords of

306-537: The Sahara , in present-day Ghana. Bono Manso (literally "on the state of Bono") sometimes known as Bono Manso or Mansu was a trading area in the medieval state of Bonoman, and a major trading centre in what is now predominantly Bono East region . Located just south of the Black Volta river at the transitional zone between savanna and forest, the town was frequented by caravans from Djenné and Timbuktu as part of

340-544: The Sungod , and the state as the Universe . Silver represents moonlight as the colour of the queenmother, just as gold, the colour of the sun, represents the king. Perceived from another angle, seven heavenly bodies Moon , Sun , Mars , Mercury , Jupiter , Venus , and Saturn rule the heaven . Seven abusua or matrilineal clans represent them on earth and rule the state. Wattle and daub Wattle and daub

374-550: The Trans-Saharan trade . Goods traded included kola nuts , salt , leather , and gold ; gold was the most important trading good of the area, starting in the mid-14th century. Begho (also Bighu or Bitu ; called Bew and Nsokɔ by the Akan) was a medieval trading town located just south of the Black Volta at the transitional zone between the forest and savanna north-western Brong-Ahafo . The town, like Bono-Manso,

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408-718: The 5th millennium BCE, predating the use of mud brick and continuing to be the preferred building material until about the start of the First Dynasty. It continued to flourish well into the New Kingdom and beyond. Vitruvius refers to it as being employed in Rome . A review of English architecture especially reveals that the sophistication of this craft is dependent on the various styles of timber frame housing. The wattle and plaster process has been replaced in modern architecture by brick and mortar or by lath and plaster ,

442-492: The Akan gold trade which the Wangara were able to control." Bakewell also notes, "the site of the abandoned town of Bighu, or Bitu, in the present-day Ghana ...lies near the present village of Hani." Bonduku was another trading center within the empire of Bonoman. It gave birth to the state of Gyaman also spelled Jamang Kingdom which was particularly famous in the production of cotton. The state existed from 1450 to 1895 and

476-531: The Bono state, including the umbrella used for the kings, the swords of the nation, the stools, goldsmithing, blacksmithing, Kente Cloth weaving, the famous adinkra symbols and goldweighing. Bono people In the late fifteenth century, the Bono people founded the Gyaaman kingdom as extension of Bono state in what is now Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire . In the 12th century, when Bonos discovered gold at

510-553: The Mitchell Site, the anterior of the house had double layers of burned daub. There were two popular choices for wattle and daub infill paneling: close-studded paneling and square paneling. Close-studding panels create a much narrower space between the timbers: anywhere from 7 to 16 inches (18 to 40 cm). For this style of panel, weaving is too difficult, so the wattles run horizontally and are known as ledgers. The ledgers are sprung into each upright timber (stud) through

544-693: The Twi river and Prabom across the Tain river , Bonos became very powerful owing to its wealth in gold at Bonoman . Bonos used the gold dust as a measure of currency in Bonoman and at the various market centres of Djenne , Timbuktu , and North Africa . In most cases, gold weighing ( abramboo ) were used to determine what quantity of gold should be exchanged for a commodity. Bono people were dexterously noted for brass casting , weaving of cloth (gagawuga, kyenkyen, and kente), pottery and so on. Around 1471, when

578-401: The acquired territory. Traditionally, a state could not be founded without a queenmother in the olden days, although many states were founded without a king . As the succession was (and still is) in the female line and as only the maternal ancestors were (and are) venerated, it was very essential that a female of royal blood gave birth to a state. That is why a queenmother owns a state, as

612-439: The common use of acacias as wattle in early Australian European settlements. Daub is usually created from a mixture of ingredients from three categories: binders , aggregates and reinforcement. Binders hold the mix together and can include clay, lime , chalk dust and limestone dust. Aggregates give the mix its bulk and dimensional stability through materials such as mud, sand, crushed chalk and crushed stone. Reinforcement

646-435: The daub. To insert wattles in a square panel several steps are required. First, a series of evenly spaced holes are drilled along the middle of the inner face of each upper timber. Next, a continuous groove is cut along the middle of each inner face of the lower timber in each panel. Vertical slender timbers, known as staves, are then inserted and these hold the whole panel within the timber frame. The staves are positioned into

680-407: The exodus of various subgroups of Akans from the Bono state. This is where a majority of Akan dialects of Ivory Coast migrated west of Ghana. Several factors weakened this state, including conflicts among the leadership, conflicts due to taxation, and no direct access to the coast of Gold Coast , where trade was helping many Akan states have more influence. Various aspects of Akan culture stem from

714-739: The god advised him to build towns or states. The god therefore got his laudatory name Biakuru, meaning "he who builds towns". Bonos then proceeded to build a town called Yefiri (literally “we are coming out of the cave”). Ohene Asaman of the falcon clan Ayoko and the Bonohemaa Ameyaa Kesse built another town as an extension and named it Bono Manso which became a capital to Bonoman with a confederation of seven powerful clans. Some other settlements were named after abosom that occupied that land. The Krontihene however stayed still at Yefiri. The families that came along were encouraged to live apart from each other, in different parts of

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748-409: The ground, the gaps being stopped with pug (kneaded clay and grass mixture). Another term for this construction is palisade and pug . "Mud and stud" is a similar process to wattle and daub, with a simple frame consisting only of upright studs joined by cross rails at the tops and bottoms. Thin staves of ash were attached, then daubed with a mixture of mud, straw, hair and dung. The style of building

782-555: The holes and then sprung into the grooves. They must be placed with sufficient gaps to weave the flexible horizontal wattles. In some places or cultures, the technique of wattle and daub was used with different materials and thus has different names. In the early days of the colonisation of South Australia , in areas where substantial timber was unavailable, pioneers' cottages and other small buildings were frequently constructed with light vertical timbers, which may have been "native pine" ( Callitris or Casuarina spp. ), driven into

816-415: The ledgers. These hazel rods are generally tied a finger-width apart with 6–8 rods each with a 16-inch (40 cm) width. Gaps allow key formation for drying. Square panels are large, wide panels typical of some later timber-frame houses. These panels may be square in shape, or sometimes triangular to accommodate arched or decorative bracing. This style requires the wattles to be woven for better support of

850-526: The nation. Bonos perform many Akan traditional dances such as Kete, Adowa , fontomfrom, and other dances. The bono people are most located in Ghana in the north Bono means "pioneer" or the "first born on the land". Among the Bonos, when a woman gave birth for the first time, it was referred to as her abonowoo. Bonos migrated from Ancient Ghana . Due to the imposition on them of another practice, they fled to

884-527: The southern part of the Black Volta river and the tropical forest of central Ghana in order to maintain their Bono Ancestral worship and spirituality . According to oral tradition, a moiety of Bonos emerged from a hole called Amonwi cave due to an earthquake at Pinihini near Fiema in Nkoransa state, and converged with the former group at thither. With the leader being Ohene Asaman in consultation with his god ( bosom buru or bosommuru ) for guidance,

918-799: The state at various times to create new Akan states in search of gold. The gold trade, which started to boom in Bonoman as early as the 14th century, led to the Akan War, as well as increased power and wealth in the region, beginning in the Middle Ages . The origin of the Akan people of Bonoman was said to be further north in what is now called the Sahel or the then Ghana Empire when Bono natives wanted to remain with their traditional form of Bono ancestral worship and spirituality , those Akans that disagreed and fought wars against Islam , migrated south of

952-433: The type of brick molded with the same materials and used as infilling between posts. Columbage refers to the timber-framed construction with diagonal bracing of the framework. Pierratage or bousillage is the material filled into the structural timbers. Bajarreque is a wall constructed with the technique of wattle and daub. The wattle here is made of bagasse , and the daub is the mix of clay and straw. Jacal can refer to

986-525: The whole of a wall. In different regions, the material of wattle can be different. For example, at the Mitchell Site on the northern outskirts of the city of Mitchell, South Dakota, willow has been found as the wattle material of the walls of the house. Reeds and vines can also be used as wattle material. The origin of the term wattle describing a group of acacias in Australia, is derived from

1020-433: Was found distributed within a radius of 3.3 km. In the second phase, the 16th to the 17th century, the urban centers were larger, consisting mainly of evenly distributed houses and a nuclear market center. Many indications of participation in long-distance trade, such as imported glass beads and mica coated pottery, stem from this period. The fall of Bono state occurred during the rise of more Akan nations, especially

1054-457: Was located in what is now Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire . Based on excavations, carbon datings and local oral traditions, Effah-Gyamfi (1985) postulated three distinct urban phases. According to him, in the early phase (thirteenth to the fifteenth century) the urban center was relatively small, and the towns were populated by thousands of people, not all living in the urban center. Buildings were made of daubed wattle . Painted pottery of this period

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1088-438: Was of considerable importance as an entrepot   frequented by northern caravans from Mali Empire from around 1100 AD. Goods traded included ivory , salt , leather, gold, kola nuts , cloth, and copper alloys . Excavations have laid bare walled structures dated between 1350 and 1750 AD, as well as pottery of all kinds, smoking pipes , and evidence of iron smelting . With a probable population of over 10 000, Begho

1122-705: Was once common in Lincolnshire . Pierrotage is the infilling material used in French Vernacular architecture of the Southern United States to infill between half-timbering with diagonal braces, which is similar to daub. It is usually made of lime mortar clay mixed with small stones. It is also called bousillage or bouzillage, especially in French Vernacular architecture of Louisiana of the early 1700s. The materials of bousillage are Spanish moss or clay and grass. Bousillage also refers to

1156-514: Was one of the largest towns in the southern part of West Africa at the time of the arrival of the Portuguese in 1471. The Malian king occupied Bighu in the mid-sixteenth century as a "perceived failure of the Bighu Juula to maintain supplies of gold," according to Bakewell. "As a result of the occupation of Bighu it seems clear that the Malian king gained access for a time to that part of

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