Misplaced Pages

#0

73-496: Borani was the name of an eggplant dish in Ancient Persian cuisine. In the cuisine of Urfa province borani is a lamb and bulgur kofta dish made with chard and chickpeas, sometimes called "Urfa borani". There is also a form of the dish made with spinach and yogurt, and other versions made with different ingredients combined with yogurt. In southern Albania the term describes a baked egg and spinach dish. In Gaziantep there

146-486: A black stone pedestal with a double bull relief, found at a hill called Külaflı Tepe in the former village of Cavşak in the 1950s when the village was being evacuated to build a base for the Urfa Brigade. The pedestal contains an inscription with an invocation to the god Tarhunza and mentions a city whose name is only partly visible, but which Bahattin Çelik restores as "Umalia", in the country of Bit Adini . Urfa

219-536: A military base in the Mesopotamian limes , although it was secondary to Nisibis in that system. In the 4th through 6th centuries AD, Edessa went through arguably its period of greatest prosperity. It was again an important commercial center, and merchants grew rich on trade in luxury goods from the east, particularly silk. As with later periods, the city had a council of notable citizens who were at least partly in charge of local government and administration. In

292-544: A presence in Edessa, the pagan planet-worshippers increasingly emigrated to Harran. By the early 6th century, a small lake had formed on the west side of the city. In 525, a flood destroyed part of the western city wall and damaged some of the city. Afterwards, a deep ditch was dug on the north and east sides of the city to act as a flood channel . In normal weather, a low dam kept the Daisan river in its original course, but if

365-618: A puppet king. The deposed Ma'nu VIII went to the Romans, who took Edessa in 165 and restored Ma'nu to power. In 166, Osrhoene became a Roman client kingdom. Ma'nu VIII died in 177 and was succeeded by Abgar VIII , also called Abgar the Great. Abgar was stripped of most of his domains except for Edessa, and Osrhoene became a Roman province, when his ally Pescennius Niger lost the civil war to Septimius Severus . Abgar devoted his remaining time to fostering arts and learning. In 201, much of Edessa

438-514: A sign of Roman influence. Abgar IX only reigned for a year – in 213, he was summoned to Rome by the emperor Caracalla , who then had him murdered. In 214, Caracalla made Edessa a Roman colony, officially ending any autonomy the city had. A son of Abgar IX, known as Ma'nu IX, appears to have been nominally a king until 240; he received an embassy from India in 218, during the reign of Elagabalus , but he did nothing else of note. The monarchy seems to have been restored to power at some point – and Abgar IX

511-576: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Urfa#Cuisine Urfa , officially called Şanlıurfa ( Turkish pronunciation: [ʃanˈɫɯuɾfa] ), is a city in southeastern Turkey and the capital of Şanlıurfa Province . The city was known as Edessa from Hellenistic times and into Christian times. Urfa is situated on a plain about 80 km east of the Euphrates . Its climate features extremely hot, dry summers and cool, moist winters. About 12 km (7 mi) northeast of

584-507: Is an Iranian salad with yogurt, cucumber and walnut. The spinach yogurt salad is known as Sabzi Boranee in Afghanistan. Borani-e Bademjan is a Persian version made with eggplant, also with yogurt. This Persian cuisine -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This Azerbaijani cuisine -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This Jewish cuisine –related article

657-562: Is no written evidence for earlier settlement at the site, but Urfa's favorable commercial and geographical placement suggests that there was a smaller settlement present prior to 303 BC. Perhaps Orhai's absence from earlier written sources is due to the settlement having been small and unfortified prior to the Seleucid period. In prehistoric times, the Urfa Region was attractive for human habitation because of its dense grazing areas and

730-529: Is the southernmost tower of the Bey Kapısı, on the east side of the city walls. This was completing the rebuilding that Toros had begun before the crusaders seized Edessa and was finished in 1122-3, while the count Joscelin I was in captivity at Harput . The County of Edessa had survived largely because their Muslim rivals were disunited. The rise of a single powerful Muslim rival – namely Imad ad-Din Zangi ,

803-697: Is version without any yogurt, called borani, and made with black-eyed peas and ground lamb. In a study on the 'Foods and Breads of the Selçuk Period', Mehmet Zeki Oral defined borani as follows: "Dishes in which the vegetables are boiled, then sautéed, are called borani . Herbs such as spinach, amaranth, dock, mallow and sorrel are simmered in water and then drained. They are then sautéed in oil/butter and topped with yoghurt flavored with garlic. These are called borani in Anatolia, while in Senirken, only

SECTION 10

#1732765567000

876-705: The mandylion (called al-mandīl in Arabic), by now a famous Christian relic, be handed over to the emperor. In return, the city would be spared and 200 Muslim prisoners would be released. With permission from the caliph al-Muttaqi , the people of Edessa handed over the mandylion and signed a truce with the Byzantines. The mandylion was translated to Constantinople; it arrived "triumphantly" on 15 August 944. The Numayrid emir Waththab ibn Sabiq declared independence in 990 and annexed Edessa early in his reign. Waththab appointed his cousin 'Utayr as governor of

949-740: The nasab "Ibn 'Utayr", to be in charge of the main citadel, while he appointed a different Numayrid named Shibl ad-Dawla to be in charge of the smaller citadel – i.e. the converted east gate, now the Bey Kapısı. In October 1031, the Byzantine general George Maniakes conquered Edessa. This would ultimately be the last significant territorial acquisition by the Byzantine Empire in Mesopotamia. The accounts of this event differ heavily. According to one version, Ibn 'Utayr had entered into negotiations with Maniakes, intending to sell him

1022-598: The Oriental Herald and Colonial Review (1824–9) and the Athenaeum (1828) which was not a success in his hands, Buckingham selling to John Sterling after a few weeks. Between 1832 and 1836 Buckingham served as MP for Sheffield . He was a strong advocate of social reform, calling for the end of flogging in the armed services, abolition of the press-gang and the repeal of the Corn Laws . In 1833 he promoted

1095-645: The "City of Prophets." Religion is important in Urfa. The city "has become a center of fundamentalist Islamic beliefs" and "is considered one of the most devoutly religious cities in Turkey". The city is located 30 miles from the Atatürk Dam , at the heart of the Southeast Anatolia Project , which draws thousands of job-seeking rural villagers to the city every year. The oldest name for

1168-549: The 11th century, there was a large influx of Armenian immigrants into the region, especially the towns. In Urfa, they supplanted Syrians as the leading citizens and wealthiest landowners. Urfa was capital of the crusader County of Edessa for about half a century beginning in 1098. The crusaders' subjects were a mix of Armenians and Syrians. In Urfa itself, Armenians were the dominant group. The crusaders themselves don't seem to have undertaken much construction in Urfa. The only extant structure that can be attributed to them

1241-446: The 1990s and then excavated in 1997 by the Şanlıurfa Museum Directorate. The findings included flint tools, arrowheads dated to the early Pre-Pottery Neolithic B phase, and two round buildings with terrazzo floors. Animal bones found at the site indicate hunting activity, and charred seed samples indicate that the villagers cultivated wheat and barley. The village at Yeni Mahalle is radiocarbon dated to roughly 9400–8600 BCE. During

1314-796: The 5th century there were three different theological schools in Edessa: the School of the Syrians (affiliated with the patriarchate of Antioch), the School of the Armenians, and the famous School of the Persians (whose teachers were not actually Persians but rather members of the Church of the East ). The School of the Persians was closed down in 489 and its staff relocated to Nisibis. There were many churches in

1387-630: The British and Foreign Institute in Hanover Square. He was a prolific writer. He had travelled in Europe, America and the East, and wrote many useful travel books, as well as many pamphlets on political and social subjects. "In 1851, the value of these and of his other literary works was recognized by the grant of a Civil List pension of £200 a year. At the time of his death in London, Buckingham

1460-475: The Byzantine emperor Heraclius captured Edessa. Urfa surrendered to the Rashidun general Iyad ibn Ghanm in 639 without resistance, supposedly when Iyad "stood at its gate riding a brown horse" according to al-Baladhuri . Several versions of the terms of surrender appear in historical sources, mentioning the citizens would be responsible for "repairing 'bridges and roads'". The pact also guaranteed that

1533-484: The Mediterranean. By the end of the 2nd century, a small Christian community had appeared in Edessa. Christianity also resonated with several religious themes already present in Edessa – besides the concept of a virgin mother and child, there was also the concept of a divine trinity and a hope for life after death. Edessa's Jewish community was probably partly responsible for the rapid spread of Christianity in

SECTION 20

#1732765567000

1606-475: The Public Institutions bill in 1835. Buckingham's bill allowed boroughs to charge a tax to set up libraries and museums. This bill never became law but would serve as inspiration for William Ewart and Joseph Brotherton , who introduced a bill that would "[empower] boroughs with a population of 10,000 or more to raise a ½d for the establishment of museums". Ewart and Brotherton's bill would become

1679-654: The Roman emperor Trajan 's campaign in Mesopotamia and received him "sumptously" at his court, but later rebelled. In retaliation, the Romans captured and destroyed Edessa, and Abgar VII was killed. The Romans installed a Parthian prince, Parthamaspates , on the Edessan throne as a puppet ruler in 117, but the Abgarids were later restored to power. Similarly, the Parthians captured Edessa in 163 and installed Wa'el bar Sharu as

1752-548: The Ruṣāfāyē. During the reign of the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur , the city walls were demolished after the local Muslim governor revolted. The old walls had already been damaged by floods in the 7th and 8th centuries. In 812, Urfa's citizens had to pay a large sum to the anti-Abbasid rebel Nasr ibn Shabath al-Uqayli to prevent him from attacking the unprotected city. Afterwards, the citizens had new defensive walls built around

1825-466: The Seljuk citadel commander refused. Tutush's forces seized the citadel and made their encampment on the west side of the city. Fearing an attack from them, Toros apparently tried to cut the citadel off by building a wall between it and the city. After Tutush died in 1095, however, his forces abandoned the citadel and Toros now took control of the whole city as a de facto independent ruler. During

1898-540: The Seljuks, but the Byzantine emperor Romanos Diogenes was deposed and in the political chaos its katepano Paulus ended up siding with the new emperor. In 1077 or 1078, Basil Apokapes besieged and captured Edessa, displacing the Byzantine governor Leo Diabatenos. He was an agent of Philaretos Brachamios , the main Byzantine agent in the region who governed from Marash; however, Basil ruled Edessa independently. In 1081-2, an amir named Khusraw unsuccessfully besieged

1971-498: The Syriac Chronicle of 1234 , this happened in 1087, while Matthew of Edessa wrote that it happened after Buzan's death in 1094. Toros appears to have begun a rebuilding project on the Bey Kapısı fortress, but it wasn't finished until after his rule. Meanwhile, Malik Shah had died in 1092 and a Seljuk dynastic crisis had broken out. In 1094, Malik Shah's brother Tutush demanded the city's surrender, but both Toros and

2044-519: The Uruk period expansion about 3200 BC. The villages Urfa and Harran began to transform into cities. By the Early Bronze Age (2900-2600 BCE) Urfa had grown into a walled city of 200ha. This city is located at the archeological site Kazane Tepe adjacent to modern Urfa. There is a tentative, yet unproven identification of ancient Urfa (Kazane Tepe) with the city of Urshu. A much later artifact is

2117-474: The aftermath of the battle he had to bribe Edessa's garrison to let his army pass unmolested. As a result of Diocletian 's reorganization of the empire in 293, a state-run factory was built at Edessa to make weapons and equipment for the soldiers stationed along the border. In 298, after Galerius Maximianus 's victory over the Sasanians, Edessa was made capital of the new province of Osrhoene. It served as

2190-639: The basis for the Museums Act 1845 . Following his retirement from parliament, in October 1837, Buckingham began a four-year tour of North America, resulting in another travel novel, A Journey Through the Slave States of North America in which, among other matters, he advocates that the United States follow the British example and abolish slavery. In 1844 he was central to the foundation of

2263-580: The citadel fell two days later on the 26th. Zengi's forces spared the native Christian population and their churches, but the Franks were killed and their churches destroyed. Zengi then appointed Zayn ad-Din Ali Küçük , the commander of his guard, as governor of the city. The fall of Edessa was a direct motivator for the Second Crusade . Christian pilgrims returning to Europe brought news of

Borani - Misplaced Pages Continue

2336-449: The citadel. His desire to sell was apparently motivated by a threat from Shibl ad-Dawla. In John Skylitzes 's version, however, Maniakes had bribed Salman, a deputy of Nasr ad-Dawla's, into surrendering the city to him in the middle of the night. If this was the case, then Salman either had some authority over Ibn 'Utayr or had otherwise deposed him. Whoever Maniakes had been negotiating with, Byzantine forces gained control of some of

2409-658: The city El-Rohha in the 18th century, although Buckingham who later visited Urfa, disagreed and noted that all Turks, and most Arabs and Kurds in the surrounding countryside called it Urfa, while a small portion of the Christians called it as the former. The city is called Riha in Kurdish . The city is known as Ուռհա , Urha , in Armenian . In 1984, the Turkish National Assembly granted Urfa

2482-495: The city and monasteries in the area. Just outside the walls were several infirmaries and hospitals. When the Roman emperor Jovian surrendered Nisibis to the Sasanians in 363, an influx of refugees came to Edessa, including many Christians. One of these refugees was the writer and theologian Ephrem the Syrian , who was a co-founder of the School of the Persians in Edessa. According to T.A. Sinclair, as Christianity gained more of

2555-626: The city is the Syriac Orhay , which is derived from either the Semitic root -r-w-ʿ , meaning "to bring water", or the Greek name "Orrha", meaning "beautiful flowing water". James Silk Buckingham claimed that in earlier times, the city was known as Ruha , and with the Arabic article, it became Ar-Ruha , evolving into Urha , and eventually Urfa . Carsten Niebuhr observed that Turks called

2628-409: The city is the famous Neolithic site of Göbekli Tepe , the world's oldest known temple, which was founded in the 10th millennium BC. The area was part of a network of the first human settlements where the agricultural revolution took place. Because of its association with Jewish , Christian , and Islamic history , and a legend according to which it was the hometown of Abraham , Urfa is nicknamed

2701-518: The city was attacked by the Turkish leader Khurasan-Salar. For 50 days beginning on 10 March 1071, Urfa was besieged by the Seljuk sultan Alp Arslan . Alp Arslan eventually lifted the siege in return for a large payment and possibly also the submission of its ruler, the doux Basilios Alousianos (son of Alusian of Bulgaria ). After the Battle of Manzikert , Edessa was intended to be handed over to

2774-501: The city's Christians would keep ownership of the cathedral. Sometime shortly after Urfa submitted to Muslim rule, a mosque was built in the city, although its location is unknown. In the early centuries of Arab rule, and particularly under the Umayyads, Urfa was still a major Christian city. It formed part of the province of Diyar Mudar . The city reportedly had 300 or 360 churches, and there were many monasteries. The population

2847-480: The city's conquest, and emissaries from the crusader states also came to appeal for help. The pope responded by issuing the papal bull Quantum praedecessores on 1 December 1145, which directly called for another crusade. Meanwhile, in the Muslim world, news of this victory made Zengi a hero. The caliph gave him many gifts and titles, including al-malik al-mansūr – "the victorious king". In May 1146, there

2920-672: The city. 'Utayr installed someone named Ahmad ibn Muhammad as his na'ib (deputy) here, but then later had him assassinated. This evidently made 'Utayr unpopular with the locals, since Ahmad had treated them well. In 1025/6 (416 AH), the city's inhabitants rebelled and appealed to Nasr ad-Dawla , the Marwanid emir of Diyar Bakr. At first, Nasr ad-Dawla appointed someone named Zangi to be his deputy in Edessa, but Zangi died in 1027. Meanwhile, 'Utayr had been assassinated. This time, Nasr ad-Dawla ended up appointing two deputies to jointly control Edessa: he chose 'Utayr's son, known only by

2993-593: The city. Abgar the Great reportedly converted to Christianity around the turn of the 3rd century, which if true would make Edessa the first Christian polity in the world. More religions joined the mix during the 3rd century. One was the Bardaisanites, founded by the important philosopher Bardaisan who Abgar the Great was a patron of. Another was the Elkesaites , a syncretic religion that combined elements of Christianity, Judaism, and paganism. There

Borani - Misplaced Pages Continue

3066-530: The city. According to Bar Hebraeus , the walls were commissioned by someone named Abu Shaykh and paid for by the citizens. The walls and towers visible today belong to this rebuilding effort, albeit with later renovations. The citadel was likely begun at the same time, probably with the addition of a moat on the south side. When the caliph al-Ma'mun came to power in 813, he dispatched his general Tahir ibn Husayn to Urfa to put down Nasr ibn Shabath's rebellion. The rebels besieged Tahir's forces in Urfa, but

3139-473: The city. After Basil's death in 1083, the citizens of Edessa elected an Armenian named Smbat to succeed him. Smbat was in charge for six months before Philaretos came in person on 23 September 1083. He appointed a Greek eunuch as governor and gave him the title parakoimomenos ; this eunuch was later assassinated by an official named Barsauma. However, Edessa was in a particularly vulnerable position "caught between two blocks of Uqaylid territory", and it

3212-418: The city. When the Franks realized they were trapped, they attempted to retreat, but it ended in disaster and they were slaughtered as they tried to escape. Moreover, the city's population was massacred – the men were put to death, while the women and children were sold into slavery. The city's Christian community, one of the oldest in the world, had been destroyed and never recovered. Although Nur ad-Din

3285-447: The crafty atabeg of Mosul – spelled disaster for the county. The tipping point came in late 1144, when Joscelin II left Edessa with a big chunk of his soldiers to assist Zengi's rival Kara Arslan . Upon becoming aware of the city's weakness, Zengi led a series of forced marches and laid siege to the city on 24 November. By 24 December, he had successfully gained entry to the city;

3358-470: The dam overflowed, then the floodwaters would flow through the artificial channel instead of into the city. At some point later on, the flood channel became the normal course of the river. Edessa successfully held out during a siege in 544. In 609, however, the Sasanian emperor Khosrow II captured Edessa during his campaign in Mesopotamia. Many of the city's Monophysites were deported to Iran. In 628,

3431-589: The destruction of several churches, claiming that they had illegally been built after the Muslim conquest. That same year, he also had a new mosque built in the tetrapylon in front of the city's Melkite cathedral. Before its conversion into a mosque, the tetrapylon had been a meeting place for church leaders. The locations of the mosque and cathedral are unknown. In the spring of 943, the Byzantine army campaigned in upper Mesopotamia, capturing several cities and either threatening Urfa or, according to Symeon Magister , besieging it outright. The Byzantines demanded that

3504-465: The emperor", Niccolò Zorzi remarks that this "does not necessarily imply that Edessa 'enjoyed a certain amount of independence from Byzantium'". The citadel became known as "Maniakes's citadel" at some point. In May 1036, the Numayri prince Ibn Waththab plundered the city and took the patricius of Edessa as prisoner, but the fortress remained in the hands of the Byzantine garrison. A peace treaty

3577-529: The first. The Franks succeeded in entering the city, but they were not properly equipped for a siege of the main citadel. During their six-day-long reoccupation of Urfa, the Franks indiscriminately looted shops belonging to Christians and Muslims alike. The city's Muslims either fled to Harran or took shelter in the citadel with the Turkish garrison. Meanwhile, Imad ad-Din's successor Nur ad-Din Zengi had arrived with an army of 10,000 soldiers and surrounded

3650-428: The fortifications but not the rest of the city. Exactly which parts Maniakes had taken control of are unclear – Skylitzes described Maniakes had taken possession of "three heavily fortified towers", but his description of Edessa's geography is completely inaccurate and he clearly had never been to the city himself. Matthew of Edessa 's account, which is more reliable, mentions "three citadels"; according to Tara Andrews,

3723-664: The founding of Edessa caused that route to shift northwards. In 132 BC, following the decline of the Seleucids, Edessa became the capital of the kingdom of Osrhoene , which was ruled by the Abgarids , an Arabized tribal dynasty with origins in Nisibis . The Abgarids were generally allied with the Parthian Empire and were under Parthian cultural influence as well. In the early second century AD, Abgar VII supported

SECTION 50

#1732765567000

3796-683: The law that would abolish slavery across the British empire. During his time as an MP, Buckingham served as chair of the select committee charged with examining "the extent, causes, and consequences of the prevailing vice of intoxication among the laboring classes of the United Kingdom" devise a solution. Campaigner for the working class Francis Place concluded that the lack of "parish libraries and direct reading rooms, and popular lecture that were both entertaining and instructive" were drawing individuals to frequent "public houses for other social enjoyment". With this in mind, Buckingham introduced

3869-444: The local civilians (one of them was the future Syriac church leader Dionysius I Telmaharoyo ) supported the soldiers and the siege was unsuccessful. Tahir's troops later mutinied, however, and he was forced to flee to Raqqa; he later appointed someone named 'Abd al-A'la as governor of Urfa. In 825, while Tahir's son Abdallah was governor of al-Jazira, his brother Muhammad enacted a series of anti-Christian policies in Urfa. He ordered

3942-435: The main citadel was outside the walls. Macedonian soldiers were settled in the new city, but they never formed a majority of its population. The city's culture remained predominantly Semitic (specifically Aramaic), and any Hellenization was minimal. Edessa was an important commercial center in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC. Previously, the main east-west trade route across Upper Mesopotamia had gone through Harran , but

4015-710: The paper's outspoken criticisms of the East India Company led to the expulsion of Buckingham from India and to the suppression of the paper by John Adam , the acting governor-general in 1823. His case was brought before a select committee of the House of Commons in 1834, and a pension of £500 a year was subsequently awarded to him by the East India Company as compensation. Buckingham continued his journalistic ventures on his return to England; he settled at Cornwall Terrace, Regent's Park , and started

4088-471: The presence of wild animals on migration routes. As a result, the area became densely populated, particularly in the Neolithic period. In Urfa itself, there was a prehistoric settlement at Yeni Mahalle Höyüğü (aka Balıklıgöl Höyüğü), located immediately north of Balıklıgöl in the heart of the old town. Now buried under single-story houses, the site was accidentally discovered during road construction in

4161-588: The title "Şanlı", meaning "glorious", in honor of its citizens' resistance against British and French troops at the end of the First World War , hence the present name "Şanlıurfa". Urfa shares the Balikh River Valley region with two other significant Neolithic sites at Nevalı Çori and Göbekli Tepe . Settlements in the area originated around 9000 BC as a PPNA Neolithic sites located near Abraham's Pool (Site Name: Balıklıgöl ). There

4234-481: The upper citadel must have been one of them. According to T.A. Sinclair, Maniakes had already gained control of the upper citadel. That winter, Nasr ad-Dawla came with an army in an attempt to drive out the Byzantines. Nasr ad-Dawla tried to besiege the Byzantine positions but was unsuccessful and decided to loot the city and tear down buildings, then burn the city to the ground while retreating with camels carrying off precious objects. According to Skylitzes, Maniakes

4307-664: The variety made with spinach is called borani. Borani also refers to dishes where vegetables are cooked with rice or bulgur and then topped with yoghurt." Borani is present among the Aromanians of the Pindus region of Greece, made with locally gathered nettles into a soup thickened with flour. Borani-e Esfanaj is a cold Persian salad made with spinach and yogurt, and other types of borani salad dishes are found in Turkish cuisine and other Middle Eastern cuisines . Borani-e Khiar

4380-577: Was a pioneer among the Europeans who fought for a liberal press in India. Buckingham was born at Flushing near Falmouth on 25 August 1786, the son of Thomasine Hambly of Bodmin and Christopher Buckingham (died 1793/94) of Barnstaple . His father, and his ancestors, were seafaring men. James was the youngest of three boys and four girls and his youth was spent at sea. The property of his deceased parents consisted of houses, land, mines and shares, which

4453-504: Was a plot by Urfa's Armenian community to overthrow the Turks and restore the city to Joscelin II. The Turks suppressed this plot and settled 300 Jewish families in the city. However, after Zengi was assassinated on 14 September 1146, the Armenians again conspired with Joscelin II to take the city. Sometime in October, Joscelin II and Baldwin of Marash came and laid siege to the city. This second siege proved far more destructive than

SECTION 60

#1732765567000

4526-431: Was able to then capture the citadel and, summoning external reinforcements, secure the whole city. Maniakes remained in charge of Edessa for several years and, according to Honigmann and Bosworth, appears to have been relatively autonomous from the Byzantines, merely sending an annual tribute to Constantinople. On the other hand, while Skylitzes does mention that "Maniakes sent an annual tribute of 50 pounds [of gold] to

4599-500: Was already an active Manichaean community in Edessa during Mani's lifetime: there is a reference in the Cologne Mani Codex to a letter he wrote to his followers in Edessa. Manichaeism's spread to Edessa was attributed to two of Mani's disciples named Addai and Thomas. Edessa's Manichaean community remained prominent until the 5th century. Abgar the Great died in 212 and was succeeded by Abgar IX , also called Severus as

4672-513: Was an active builder elsewhere, only one building at Urfa can be attributed to him: the "rather plain" Great Mosque, which was probably on the site of an earlier church. After Nur ad-Din's death in 1174, Urfa was captured by his nephew Sayf al-Din Ghazi II . James Silk Buckingham James Silk Buckingham (25 August 1786 – 30 June 1855) was a British author, journalist and traveller, known for his contributions to Indian journalism. He

4745-407: Was an eclectic melting pot of different religious groups. Unlike Harran, where the cult of the moon god Sin predominated, the people of Edessa worshipped a whole pantheon of gods that can generally be identified with planets. In addition to polytheists, Edessa also had a prominent Jewish community. Many of Edessa's Jews were merchants, involved in long-distance trade between the Persian Gulf and

4818-423: Was apparently king until 248, when the emperor Philip the Arab had him banished after Edessa rebelled. In 260, the Sasanian emperor Shapur I defeated the Romans in the Battle of Edessa and captured the emperor. However, either Shapur never actually captured the city or he only held it for a very short time – it is not listed among the cities he captured in his inscription on the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht , and in

4891-473: Was at work on his autobiography, two volumes of the intended four being completed and published (1855)". This work is important as it mentions in detail the life of the black composer Joseph Antonio Emidy who settled in Truro . In February 1806, Buckingham married Elizabeth Jennings (1786–1865), the daughter of a Cornish farmer. Buckingham died after a long illness at Stanhope Lodge, Upper Avenue Road , St John's Wood , London, on 30 June 1855. Buckingham

4964-418: Was destroyed by a major flood. According to the Chronicle of Edessa , over 2,000 people died. Abgar granted a remission of taxes for people affected by the flood and immediately began a large-scale reconstruction project of the city after the old Seleucid plan. Abgar repaired the old royal palace by the river, which had been damaged by the flood, but he also built a new palace on higher ground. Ancient Edessa

5037-416: Was founded as a city under the name Edessa by the Seleucid king Seleucus I Nicator in 302 or 303 BC. Seleucus named the city Edessa after the ancient capital of Macedonia . Ancient sources describe Seleucid Edessa as following the typical plan for Hellenistic military colonies: its streets were laid out in a grid pattern, with four main streets that intersected each other. There were four city gates, and

5110-406: Was left to the three youngest children. In 1797 he was captured by the French and held as a prisoner of war at Corunna . In 1821, his Travels in Palestine was published, followed by Travels Among the Arab Tribes in 1825. After years of wandering he settled in India, where he established a periodical, the Calcutta Journal , in 1818. This venture at first proved highly successful, but in 1823

5183-411: Was mostly Syrian Orthodox but with significant Melkite and Jewish minorities; there were relatively few Muslims. The city was led by a group of distinguished citizens, including magnates and agricultural landowners, who "formed a partly self-governing body" that dealt with the caliphal government rather than the bishop. Some of the leading families in this period included the Gūmāyē, the Telmaḥrāyē, and

5256-531: Was particularly vulnerable to the Seljuks. In 1086-7, the Seljuk sultan Malik Shah I sent his general Buzan to take the city while he himself campaigned in Syria. A three-month siege followed, with Barsauma defending the city. The city surrendered in March 1087 and Buzan appointed a Seljuk commander to head the citadel. At some point, an Armenian named Toros in charge of the city administration – according to

5329-498: Was reached in 1037; under its terms, Edessa came directly under Byzantine control and it was refortified. Edessa now became an important Byzantine command placed under a series of katepanos and dukes. The "duchy" of Edessa probably comprised the whole area beyond the Euphrates under their control with several fortresses north of the river. The city "was still inhabited by many Christians" at this point. In 1065-6 and 1066-7,

#0