101-540: Boroughitis (also borough fever or borough mania ) was the creation in the 1890s, usually by referendum , of large numbers of small boroughs in the U.S. state of New Jersey , particularly in Bergen County . Attempts by the New Jersey Legislature to reform local government and school systems led to the breakup of most of Bergen County's townships into small boroughs, which still balkanize
202-486: A turnout threshold (also called a participation quorum) in order for the referendum to be considered legally valid. In a participation quorum a majority of those voting must approve of the referendum, and a certain percentage of population must have voted in order for the results to be approved. The usage of participation quorums in referendums is controversial, as higher requirements have been shown to reduced turnout and voter participation. With high participation quorums,
303-412: A bare majority the power to accept or reject a few that have dared to oppose the new fad, and for this simple expression of their rights to cut them from all school facilities is radically wrong and gross injustice. There is no defense for the injured, but they must meekly accept the situation. It is inconsistent with liberty, a term so dear to us all". Superintendent Terhune wrote that "until the boroughing
404-400: A city (process known as suburban sprawl ), but the specifics of how that distinction is realized remain drastically different between societies, with Eurasian "suburbs" often being more densely populated than North American "urban cores". The first separation between workplace and place of residence occurred as a result of the invention of the steam railway . The word commuter derives from
505-467: A context attached to a noun such as Propositum quod referendum est populo , "A proposal which must be carried back to the people". The addition of the verb sum (3rd person singular, est ) to a gerundive, denotes the idea of necessity or compulsion, that which "must" be done, rather than that which is "fit for" doing. Its use as a noun in English is not considered a strictly grammatical usage of
606-524: A demand. This may come from the executive branch, legislative branch, or a request from the people (often after meeting a signature requirement). Types of optional referendums include: From a political-philosophical perspective, referendums are an expression of direct democracy , but today, most referendums need to be understood within the context of representative democracy . They tend to be used quite selectively, covering issues such as changes in voting systems, where currently elected officials may not have
707-406: A foreign word but is rather a newly coined English noun, which follows English grammatical usage, not Latin grammatical usage. This determines the form of the plural in English, which according to English grammar should be "referendums". The use of "referenda" as a plural form in English (treating it as a Latin word and attempting to apply to it the rules of Latin grammar) is unsupportable according to
808-478: A gender sensitive commuter-centric road safety policy requires to be developed to protect women while commuting as they felt stressed and scared to travel alone, particularly at night. Institutions that have few dormitories or low or no student housing populations are called commuter schools in the United States, like community colleges . Most commuters travel at the same time of day, resulting in
909-477: A larger stake in the government. They were fiercely opposed on each issue by the existing rural, agricultural population, who understood that their taxes would need to be raised in order to pay for the services that they did not want. Schools and school districts caused angry debate between commuters and long-time residents. School district lines were independent of those of townships, for every school formed its own school district. Accordingly, townships could contain
1010-625: A non-majoritarian methodology like the Modified Borda Count (MBC) as more inclusive and more accurate. Swiss referendums offer a separate vote on each of the multiple options as well as an additional decision about which of the multiple options should be preferred. In the Swedish case, in both referendums the 'winning' option was chosen by the Single Member Plurality ("first past the post") system. In other words,
1111-669: A number of school districts: Bergen County 's Franklin Township in the early 1890s contained eleven school districts serving 774 students. Of the 94 schools in Bergen County in 1893, 31 were one-room schoolhouses , though this was a decrease from 44 in 1880. Bergen County was sparsely populated when the railroad lines went through in the 1850s, making for a different pattern of development than other suburban counties, such as Union and Camden , which saw more planned development around railroad stations. Bergen's pattern of development
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#17327762491771212-470: A plebiscite was considered another name for a referendum. In Ireland, 'plebiscite' referred to the vote to adopt its constitution, but a subsequent vote to amend the constitution is called a 'referendum', as is a poll of the electorate on a non-constitutional bill. The name and use of the 'referendum' is thought to have originated in the Swiss canton of Graubünden as early as the 16th century. After
1313-444: A plurality of issues. It is closely related to agenda , "those matters which must be driven forward", from ago , to impel or drive forwards; and memorandum , "that matter which must be remembered", from memoro , to call to mind, corrigenda , from rego , to rule, make straight, those things which must be made straight (corrected), etc. The term 'plebiscite' has a generally similar meaning in modern usage and comes from
1414-400: A proportionate increase in the cost of government, which would be further inflated by the multiplicity of boroughs. The signal that the law might change did not slow the incorporations: Wood-Ridge, Carlstadt, Edgewater , Old Tappan and other boroughs trace their geneses to late 1894. There were some fistfights and hard feelings over the borough formations, and Russell Jones, whose house was on
1515-463: A reduction in the number of referendums in the Mid-twentieth century, the referendum as a political tool has been increasing in popularity since the 1970s. This increase has been attributed to dealignment of the public with political parties, as specific policy issues became more important to the public than party identifiers. The term "referendum" covers a variety of different meanings, and
1616-409: A referendum are more likely to be driven by transient whims than by careful deliberation, or that they are not sufficiently informed to make decisions on complicated or technical issues. Also, voters might be swayed by propaganda , strong personalities, intimidation, and expensive advertising campaigns. James Madison argued that direct democracy is the " tyranny of the majority ". Some opposition to
1717-461: A referendum held in Australia to determine a new national anthem was held, in which voters had four choices. In 1992, New Zealand held a five-option referendum on their electoral system. In 1982, Guam had a referendum that used six options, with an additional blank option for those wishing to (campaign and) vote for their own seventh option. A multiple choice referendum poses the question of how
1818-473: A referendum. Therefore avoid referendums. Therefore don't raise questions which require them, such as the big versus the little states. Some critics of the referendum attack the use of closed questions. A difficulty called the separability problem can plague a referendum on two or more issues. If one issue is in fact, or in perception, related to another on the ballot, the imposed simultaneous voting of first preference on each issue can result in an outcome which
1919-410: A result, the needs of worker households must be sustained and this leads to a wider field of job search beyond a local area to the next nearest city or metropolitan area, resulting in the requirement for commuting. Hence, in areas where little or no transit options exist that can facilitate a journey to work to meet the requirements of a worker schedule, the use of a car is therefore made necessary. This
2020-419: A seat on the county Board of Chosen Freeholders. According to Wright, "the consequences of casting special legislation under guise of a general law soon became patent". Since 1885, new boroughs had not gotten their own freeholder, with borough voters instead joining with those in the township they were formerly part of to elect one. Partisans saw the political possibilities of the 1894 law, and contested control of
2121-424: A seat on the county board or to keep control of the local school. Forty new boroughs were formed in 1894 and 1895, with the bulk in Bergen County, where most townships were broken up or greatly reduced in size; there are few there today. The state legislature scuttled the right to elect a freeholder in 1895, and ended the formation of boroughs by referendum the following year. Municipalities continued to be created by
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#17327762491772222-459: A vent in the facility which the borough law afforded for the creation of a new municipality. We have not thought it advisable, however, to question in any way the existence of any of these boroughs or, in rehabilitating them, to make any distinction between those that ought to exist and those that ought not. It will be sufficient for the present, we trust, to guard against the increase of such boroughs. State Senator Foster M. Voorhees , report of
2323-496: Is a major factor contributing to air pollution . Carpool lanes can help commuters reach their destinations more quickly, encourage people to socialize, and spend time together, while reducing air pollution . Some governments and employers have introduced employee travel reduction programs that encourage such alternatives as carpooling and remote work . Some are also carpooling using Internet sites to save money. Alternatives like personal rapid transit have also been proposed to reap
2424-418: Is a personal choice driven by financial need, highlighting the broader issue of sustaining local economies. Since commuting largely stems from a need to travel outside a home community to sustain a household income while facing a bleak local employment market, this comes with additional social and health implications. First, there is the increased risk of injury and accident while driving as distance and time in
2525-468: Is argued as the reason why, since World War II , there has been no provision in Germany for the holding of referendums at the federal level. In recent years, referendums have been used strategically by several European governments trying to pursue political and electoral goals. In 1995, John Bruton considered that All governments are unpopular. Given the chance, people would vote against them in
2626-661: Is displeasing to most. Several commentators have noted that the use of citizens' initiatives to amend constitutions has so tied the government to a jumble of popular demands as to render the government unworkable. A 2009 article in The Economist argued that this had restricted the ability of the California state government to tax the people and pass the budget, and called for an entirely new Californian constitution. A similar problem also arises when elected governments accumulate excessive debts. That can severely reduce
2727-417: Is done", it would not be possible to assess the many problems that the rapid subdivision had caused: "I would not attempt to estimate, let alone approximate, the changes caused by the boroughs. It is simply inconceivable". The Act of February 18, 1895, amended the previous year's borough bill to raise the requirement for incorporation petitions from owners of 10 percent of the land value to 50 percent. The rush
2828-437: Is more common. A small number of very wealthy people, and those working in remote locations around the world, also commute by air travel , often for a week or more at a time rather than the more typical daily commute. Transportation links that enable commuting also impact the physical layout of cities and regions, allowing a distinction to arise between mostly-residential suburbs and the more economically focused urban core of
2929-420: Is often made necessary due to local employment market factors which may stem from the decline of manufacturing (i.e., in cities where large manufacturing employers have either closed or laid off workers, with no other employers to absorb that loss) and, in general, the sheer lack of local employment. More specifically, wages from local employers are often insufficient for a worker household to sustain itself. As
3030-624: Is situated, and be a member of such board ... Chapter CLXXVI of the Public Laws of 1894, State of New Jersey (May 9, 1894) In April, the Republican majority in Trenton let it be known they were working on a bill to solve Delford's problem by allowing boroughs to be formed from portions of two or more townships, and this became the Act of May 9, 1894. The act also granted such boroughs
3131-465: Is that they may avoid what is feared will be heavy macadam tax". The proposed borough of Delford would take land from multiple townships, uniting communities on both sides of the Hackensack River that shared a school, but incorporation was put on hold because of legal uncertainty as to whether a borough could be formed from parts of more than one township. WHEREAS, doubts have arisen whether
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3232-594: Is usually by bicycle , so this is common in low-income countries but is also increasingly practised by people in wealthier countries for environmental and health reasons. In middle-income countries, motorcycle commuting is very common. The next technology adopted as countries develop is more dependent on location: in more populous, older cities, especially in Eurasia mass transit (rail, bus, etc.) predominates, while in smaller, younger cities, and large parts of North America and Australasia, commuting by personal automobile
3333-429: Is virtually impossible to tell one fungible borough from the other. Yet each has its own most prized possession, and prized it should be considering its cost: its own school district. Referendum A referendum , plebiscite , or ballot measure is a direct vote by the electorate (rather than their representatives ) on a proposal, law, or political issue. A referendum may be either binding (resulting in
3434-607: The American Revolutionary War , the New Jersey Legislature confirmed all municipal charters , and granted new ones; by 1798, the state had 104 townships. Increased economic activity in Essex , Morris and Sussex counties, and the formation of Warren County , raised the number to 125 by 1834. Most of the townships had low taxes and little government; the roads (mostly of dirt) were maintained by farmers in lieu of taxes. Township meetings occurred each February;
3535-552: The Hudson River , led to a referendum that saw Tenafly break away in January 1894. Some communities seceded in early 1894 because of disputes about how to pay for macadamized roads, which were first paved through much of Bergen County in the first half of the 1890s. The Hackensack Republican reported on March 1, "the chief reason why Delford [later Oradell ], Westwood , Hillsdale and Park Ridge want to become boroughs
3636-505: The 1896 act "was intended to express a legislative policy, and was based upon the conclusion that the method of incorporation [of new boroughs] by petition and election, within a territory defined by the petitioners, was a dangerous delegation of a power that should be exercised by the legislature only". The following year, the legislature undertook a thorough revision of the laws relating to boroughs, and forbade incorporations, dissolutions, or boundary changes without its leave. This simply moved
3737-569: The 1920s, the number of municipalities in Bergen County had reached 70, where it still stands. After the 1920s, the legislature did not create many new municipalities, but local officials used zoning to affect land use, making annexation less attractive. Because of boroughitis, the township as a form of government all but disappeared from Bergen County. One that remains is South Hackensack , the remnants of Lodi Township that no seceding borough wanted. Its three pieces are separated from each other by several miles. A number of boroughs became townships in
3838-541: The 2014 ACS, the average commute time for adults in the United States was 26.8 minutes. The occupations with the longest commutes were Construction and Mining (33.4 minutes), Computer Science and Math (31.8), and Business Operations Specialists (30.2), while those in the military had the shortest commute (21). In general, urban and suburban workers in the US have similar commute times (about 30 minutes), while rural workers have significantly shorter commutes (22.6 minutes). In
3939-611: The 40 boroughs created in 1894 and 1895, 26 were in Bergen County. The ones elsewhere included Roselle and Mountainside , in Union County. In September 1894, state Senator Henry D. Winton warned that the legislature at its next session was likely to amend if not gut the Borough Act because of the craze in Bergen County. Nine new members had been added to the Board of Chosen Freeholders from the previous sixteen, Winton noted, with
4040-455: The Bergen County government through the formation of boroughs that would elect freeholders of their party. The energetic legislators finally reached school reform with Chapter CCCXXXV of the Public Laws of 1894. That act, passed on May 25, provided that "the several school districts in each township shall be consolidated into one school district". The legislature's intent was to equalize funding between wealthier districts and poorer ones. This had
4141-761: The Democratic farmers. According to Bergen County historian Kevin Wright, "Having gained sufficient numbers by 1893 to challenge Punkin Dusters at the polls, the Commuters of Bergen County led a political revolution in Home Rule that finally toppled the ancien régime." Legal disputes about control of the New Jersey Senate and the Republican desire to undo many Democratic policies occupied the legislature in
Boroughitis - Misplaced Pages Continue
4242-552: The Joint Committee to Revise the Laws Concerning Boroughs, March 25, 1896 The wave of incorporations continued into 1895, with Cliffside Park gaining borough status in January. That month, Bergen County's school superintendent, John Terhune, wrote a report to Trenton, decrying that the law allowed borough petitioners to set the proposed lines to exclude opponents of incorporation, "The idea of allowing
4343-584: The Latin plebiscita , which originally meant a decree of the Concilium Plebis (Plebeian Council), the popular assembly of the Roman Republic . Today, a referendum can also often be referred to as a plebiscite, but in some countries the two terms are used differently to refer to votes with differing types of legal consequences. In Australia, a 'referendum' is often said to be a vote to change
4444-474: The Swiss or Swedish sense (in which only one of several counter-propositions can be victorious, and the losing proposals are wholly null and void), it does have so many yes-or-no referendums at each election day that conflicts arise. The State's constitution provides a method for resolving conflicts when two or more inconsistent propositions are passed on the same day. This is a de facto form of approval voting —i.e.
4545-412: The US, over 90% of workers commute by car, while about 5% commute by public transportation . Statistical models indicate that in addition to demographics and work duration, commute time is one of the most important determinants of discretionary time allocation by individuals. The number of students who commute to college continues to increase significantly as the years go by. From 1996 to 2006 alone,
4646-471: The adoption of a new policy ) or advisory (functioning like a large-scale opinion poll ). 'Referendum' is the gerundive form of the Latin verb referre , literally "to carry back" (from the verb ferre , "to bear, bring, carry" plus the inseparable prefix re- , here meaning "back" ). As a gerundive is an adjective , not a noun , it cannot be used alone in Latin, and must be contained within
4747-432: The borough craze in Bergen County. Wealthy communities that had had their own school districts now faced the prospect of sharing their school tax revenues with poorer areas, or of being divided up piecemeal in borough referendums. Allendale broke away, principally from Franklin Township, because of such fears. At 650 people, Allendale was one of the more populous boroughs formed in 1894. In commuter communities as Park Ridge,
4848-436: The borough of Englewood Cliffs voted to secede from Englewood , 34–1. North Arlington was incorporated as a borough by a referendum held on March 26, 1896, the day the state legislature passed a bill providing that, "no borough or village shall hereafter be incorporated in this state except by special act of the legislature." According to lawyer Alfred F. Skinner in his 1916 book on the law pertaining to New Jersey boroughs,
4949-633: The citizens would discuss concerns, voluntarily seek solutions, and collectively appoint agents to carry out their will. Voters in each township elected members of the county governing body, the Board of Chosen Freeholders . The railroad brought major changes to New Jersey beginning in the mid-19th century. The state was mostly agricultural, and the new lines made it easier for farmers to get their crops to market. But they also made it easier for those employed in New York City or Philadelphia to live outside
5050-406: The courts. In 1878, the legislature passed the Borough Act, allowing landowners in an area less than 4 square miles (10 km) and with fewer than 1,000 people to seek a referendum on secession from the township to become a new borough . This referendum could take place on petition of the owners of 10 percent of the land, as measured by value, in the area in question, and 10 days' notice of the vote
5151-454: The early 1980s, though they did not necessarily change their form of government, as until 1986, more federal aid was available to municipalities called townships than to those styled boroughs. As of 2022, with the merger that year of Pine Valley into Pine Hill , New Jersey has 564 municipalities and the most municipalities per capita of any state. Its boroughs include Teterboro in Bergen County, site of an airport , industrial buildings, and
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#17327762491775252-402: The early days of rail travel in US cities, such as New York, Philadelphia, Boston and Chicago, where, in the 1840s, the railways engendered suburbs from which travelers paid a reduced or 'commuted' fare into the city. Later, the back formations "commute" and "commuter" were coined therefrom. Commuted tickets would usually allow the traveler to repeat the same journey as often as they liked during
5353-543: The early part of its 1894 session. Nevertheless, interest groups such as local landowners pushed the legislature for permissive policies on municipal incorporation, hoping to gain power in the new governments. As the legislature sat, the townships of Bergen County fractured. The provision of the Borough Act allowing separation had been little used prior to 1893, and in 1893, Bergen County had only three boroughs. A year-long legal battle in Palisades Township , along
5454-404: The effect of eliminating more than 1,000 school districts statewide. Had the legislature done no more, according to former New Jersey General Assembly Speaker Alan Karcher , "New Jersey might have had fewer than 500 municipalities today". However, the legislature further enacted in the bill, "that each city , borough, and incorporated town , shall be a school district, separate and distinct from
5555-519: The effective margin for later governments. Both these problems can be moderated by a combination of other measures as Referendums occur occasionally rather than periodically as elections are and they don’t offer the same kind of formal opposition. Because referendums affect for a longer term than legislative deliberation, a turnout and supermajority requirement is necessary to maintain principles of majoritarianism. In republic polities, referendums could be used to bypass legislatures and representatives by
5656-541: The electorate a straight choice between accepting or rejecting a proposal. However some referendums give voters multiple choices, and some use transferable voting. This has also been called a preferendum when the choices given allow the voters to weight their support for a policy. In Switzerland , for example, multiple choice referendums are common. Two multiple choice referendums were held in Sweden , in 1957 and in 1980, in which voters were offered three options. In 1977,
5757-549: The energy-efficiency benefits of a mass transit system while maintaining the speed and convenience of individual transport. Traffic emissions, such as from cars and trucks , also contribute. Airborne by-products from vehicle exhaust systems cause air pollution and are a major ingredient in the creation of smog in some large cities. The major culprits from transportation sources are carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NO and NO x ), volatile organic compounds , sulfur dioxide, and hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are
5858-486: The executive body. Zurcher argues that the use of the Nazi referendums was ending turnout requirements to advance intrinsic advantages in an otherwise slower and more demanding manner to constitutional and policy changes. https://ballotpedia.org/List_of_ballot_measures_by_year From 1777 inclusively Commuter Commuting is periodically recurring travel between a place of residence and place of work or study, where
5959-506: The existence of the reverse commuter who lives in a core city but works in the suburbs, and to a type of secondary commuter who lives in a more distant exurb and works in the outlying city or industrial suburb . A UK study, published in 2009, found that on average women suffer four times as much psychological stress from their work commute as men do. An Indian study conducted in Mangalore led by Edmond Fernandes stated that creating
6060-502: The federal constitution and 'plebiscite' a vote which does not affect the federal constitution. However, this is erroneous as not all federal referendums have been on constitutional matters (such as the 1916 Australian conscription referendum ), and state votes that likewise do not affect either the federal or state constitution are frequently said to be referendums (such as the 2009 Western Australian daylight saving referendum ). Historically, they are used by Australians interchangeably and
6161-400: The growing number of commuters , who wanted more government services for the new developments near railroad lines, and long-time residents such as farmers, who understood this to come with higher taxes. A previously little-used law permitted small segments of existing townships to vote by referendum to form independent boroughs. In late 1893, Republicans, backed by commuters, captured control of
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#17327762491776262-543: The high cost of housing in city centres, lack of public transit , and traffic congestion , modes of travel may include automobiles , motorcycles , trains , aircraft , buses , and bicycles . Where Los Angeles is infamous for its automobile gridlock, commuting in New York is closely associated with the subway; in London and Tokyo and several European cities, "commuter" is automatically associated with rail passengers. In
6363-572: The homes of fewer than a hundred residents, and Tavistock in Camden County, consisting primarily of a country club. Governor Chris Christie urged consolidation to lower the cost of government, and a number of municipalities have studied it, but there have been few recent mergers, with the other one being the merger of Princeton Borough with Princeton Township in 2012. Karcher, both while Speaker and afterwards, promoted consolidation, but saw it fall victim to home rule advocates. He discussed
6464-419: The incorporation – though not excluding their farmland. Once Wood-Ridge was successfully established, the farmhouse was annexed by borough ordinance. The secession of Wood-Ridge from Bergen Township , together with that of Carlstadt , Moonachie and Wallington , left Bergen Township with only a patch of low-lying swampland and 61 voters; the legislature in 1902 annexed it to Lodi Township . Of
6565-554: The land, generally near stations, was sold off, and was transformed into communities that in the following years would secede from the township in which they lay, creating some of the "doughnut holes", with boroughs surrounded by the townships they were formerly part of, that mark the New Jersey municipal landscape today. In the 1893 elections, Republicans recaptured control of the New Jersey Legislature. This
6666-492: The legislature into the 20th century, and although there have been efforts at consolidation in recent years to lower the high cost of government, they have not been particularly effective. At the time of the union of East Jersey and West Jersey into the Province of New Jersey in 1702, there were about 24 townships ; more were added under British government by letters patent , court decrees, or legislative action. Following
6767-435: The legislature; the following year, they passed legislation allowing boroughs that were formed from parts of two or more townships to elect a representative to the county Board of Chosen Freeholders . This 1894 act, in combination with a second one the same year that consolidated school districts into one per municipality, made it easy and attractive for dissatisfied communities to break away and become boroughs, in order to gain
6868-644: The legitimacy or inclination to implement such changes. Since the end of the 18th century, hundreds of national referendums have been organised in the world; almost 600 national votes have been held in Switzerland since its inauguration as a modern state in 1848 . Italy ranks second with 78 national referendums : 72 popular referendums (51 of which were proposed by the Radical Party ), 4 constitutional referendums, one institutional referendum and one advisory referendum . A referendum usually offers
6969-414: The long-term effect of the boroughitis craze: The ultimate cost to the state's taxpayers ... directly attributable to the Republican reforms of 1894, is incalculable. One need only take an afternoon drive through Bergen County. The only evidence that you have traversed one borough in the last five minutes and are now entering another, which may take only three minutes to cross, is a sign. Otherwise, it
7070-519: The main components of petroleum fuels such as gasoline and diesel fuel . These molecules react with sunlight, heat, ammonia , moisture, and other compounds to form the noxious vapours, ground level ozone , and particles that comprise smog. In the United States, the Census Bureau 's American Community Survey (ACS) collects data on commuting times, allowing an analysis of average commute time by industry, location, and vehicle. According to
7171-697: The morning and evening rush hours , with congestion on roads and public transport systems not designed or maintained well enough to cope with the peak demands. As an example, Interstate 405 located in Southern California is one of the busiest freeways in the United States. Commuters may sit up to two hours in traffic during rush hour. Construction work or collisions on the freeway distract and slow down commuters, contributing to even longer delays. Cars carrying only one occupant use fuel and roads less efficiently than shared cars or public transport , and increase traffic congestion . Commuting by car
7272-408: The nascent borough would most likely go Democratic as only 16 Republicans could be found. Ridgewood , then a township, avoided further depredations by Midland Park and Glen Rock by incorporating as a village . The borough of Wood-Ridge was formed after the boundary lines were carefully drawn with an eye to the referendum, to exclude the home of a family of prominent landowners who were opposed to
7373-416: The near future there may be another move away from the traditional "commute" with the introduction of flexible working. Some have suggested that many employees would be far more productive and live healthier, stress-free lives if the daily commute is removed completely. Commuting has had a large impact on modern life. It has allowed cities to grow to sizes that were previously not practical, and it has led to
7474-642: The new residents often led the borough drives against the opposition of the old inhabitants who feared the improvements would not benefit them and that the new borough would quickly incur debt through issuance of municipal bonds . Another new borough created by the residents to keep local school control was Woodcliff, which was formed around the settlement of Pascack from parts of Harrington Township and Orvil Township , and which in 1910 became Woodcliff Lake . Rural Upper Saddle River broke away from Orvil Township and Hohokus Township , taking one of Orvil Township's six schoolhouses – the press noted that
7575-447: The newly drawn line between Teaneck and Bogota , saw it burn down as firefighters argued about who had jurisdiction. We believe that there are many boroughs in this State which have no sufficient excuse for existence, which were prompted by some local desire for extravagant improvement, or were a part of a scheme of speculation to encourage the sale of real estate, or were the outgrowth of sectional or local jealousy which found too easy
7676-409: The opposition of a referendum has an interest in abstaining from the vote instead of participating, in order to invalidate the referendum results through low turnout. This is a form of the no-show paradox . All others who are not voting for other reasons, including those with no opinion, are effectively also voting against the referendum. In the 2005 Italian fertility laws referendum , opposition to
7777-633: The percentage of undergraduate students who commuted to campus began to increase at a rate of 30% to 50%. In a study involving 10 universities in Canada, 61% of students reported that their commute was a challenge to campus participation, while 30% perceived it as a barrier to academic success. Factors influencing satisfaction included commute mode, duration, travel attitudes, and campus type. Notably, 72% of students had one-way commutes of one hour or less, 22% had commutes lasting between 60 and 90 minutes, and 9% faced commutes exceeding 90 minutes. Commuting
7878-504: The period of validity: normally, the longer the period the cheaper the cost per day. Before the 19th century, most workers lived less than an hour's walk from their work. The Industrial Revolution brought specialization of work and workplaces, and relocated most paid work from households and rural areas to factories in urban areas. Today, many people travel daily to work a long way from their own towns, cities, and villages, especially in industrialised societies . Depending on factors such as
7979-454: The proliferation of suburbs. Many large cities or conurbations are surrounded by commuter belts , also known as metropolitan areas , commuter towns , dormitory towns, or bedroom communities. The prototypical commuter lives in one of these areas and travels daily to work or to school in the core city. As urban sprawl pushes further and further away from central business districts , new businesses can appear in outlying cities , leading to
8080-418: The proposed loosening of laws on research on embryos and on allowing in-vitro fertilization , campaigned for people to abstain from voting to drive down turnout. Although a majority of people voted yes for the changes in the law, the results were invalid because participation was low. Important referendums are frequently challenged in courts. In pre-referendum disputes, plaintiffs have often tried to prevent
8181-418: The proposition with the most "yes" votes prevails over the others to the extent of any conflict. Other voting systems that could be used in multiple-choice referendum are Condorcet method and quadratic voting (including quadratic funding ). Quorums are typically introduced to prevent referendum results from being skewed by low turnout or decided by a motivated minority of voters. Referendums may require
8282-401: The provisions of the above-mentioned [Borough Act of 1878] apply to boroughs embracing within their territory parts of more than one township ... [it is enacted] that at the election for borough officers the legal voters of each such borough shall be entitled to vote for a chosen freeholder who shall represent such borough in the board of chosen freeholders of the county in which such borough
8383-408: The public. In areas that use referendums a mandatory referendum is commonly used as a legally required step for ratification for constitutional changes, ratifying international treaties and joining international organizations, and certain types of public spending. Typical types of mandatory referendums include: An optional referendum is a class of referendums that is put to the vote as a result of
8484-522: The referendum has arisen from its use by dictators such as Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini who, it is argued, used the plebiscite to disguise oppressive policies as populism . Dictators may also make use of referendums as well as show elections to further legitimize their authority such as António de Oliveira Salazar in 1933 ; Benito Mussolini in 1934 ; Adolf Hitler in 1934 , 1936 ; Francisco Franco in 1947 ; Park Chung Hee in 1972 ; and Ferdinand Marcos in 1973 . Hitler's use of plebiscites
8585-881: The referendum to take place. In one such challenge, in 2017, the Spanish Constitutional Court suspended the Catalonia 's independence referendum . In post-referendum disputes, they challenge the result. British courts dismissed post-referendum challenges of the Brexit referendum. International tribunals have traditionally not interfered with referendum disputes. In 2021, the European Court of Human Rights extended its jurisdiction to referendums in its judgment Toplak and Mrak v. Slovenia , initiated by two disabled voters over polling place access . In Political Governance states that voters in
8686-621: The result is to be determined. They may be set up so that if no single option receives the support of an absolute majority (more than half) of the votes, resort can be made to the two-round system or instant-runoff voting , which is also called IRV and PV. In 2018 the Irish Citizens' Assembly considered the conduct of future referendums in Ireland , with 76 of the members in favour of allowing more than two options, and 52% favouring preferential voting in such cases. Other people regard
8787-543: The rules of both Latin and English grammar. The use of "referenda" as a plural form is posited hypothetically as either a gerund or a gerundive by the Oxford English Dictionary , which rules out such usage in both cases as follows: Referendums is logically preferable as a plural form meaning 'ballots on one issue' (as a Latin gerund, referendum has no plural). The Latin plural gerundive 'referenda', meaning 'things to be referred', necessarily connotes
8888-481: The state's political map. This occurred following the development of commuter suburbs in New Jersey, residents of which wanted more government services, whereas the long-time rural population feared the increases in taxation that would result. In the late 19th century, much of New Jersey was divided into large townships. In Bergen County, several of these townships contained multiple commuter suburbs, often formed around railroad stations. Political disputes arose between
8989-521: The terminology is different depending on the us that holds them. A referendum can be binding or advisory. In some countries, different names are used for these two types of referendum. Referendums can be further classified by who initiates them. David Altman proposes four dimensions that referendums can be classified by: A mandatory referendum is a class of referendum required to be voted on if certain conditions are met or for certain government actions to be taken. They do not require any signatures from
9090-510: The township school district". Thus, if a community seceded from its township to form a borough, it would keep control of its school. The new township school districts would be responsible for the debts of their predecessors, meaning that some communities faced the prospect of paying off, in part, the debts of others, and seeing some of their tax dollars going to fund others' schools. Under the law, by becoming an incorporated borough, they could avoid these things. The school legislation greatly fueled
9191-533: The township's tax burden. With the Bergen County Board of Chosen Freeholders by then at 28 members, divided evenly between the parties, the legislature passed a bill setting the number of members of such boards in third-class counties (including Bergen) at 9, with the freeholders elected from the Delford-style boroughs to go out of office on May 8. Nevertheless, on May 9, electors in what became
9292-421: The traveler, referred to as a commuter , leaves the boundary of their home community. By extension, it can sometimes be any regular or often repeated travel between locations, even when not work-related. The modes of travel, time taken and distance traveled in commuting varies widely across the globe. Most people in least-developed countries continue to walk to work. The cheapest method of commuting after walking
9393-607: The urban core and yet commute to work each day. Even before the Civil War , the Brick Church station , in Orange , Essex County, about 15 miles (24 km) from New York City, became the center of the nation's first commuter suburb . New Jersey's townships acquired a new type of population, consisting of commuters , who formed communities near railroad stations, and who wanted good streets and roads , better funded schools, and
9494-405: The vehicle increases, which is generally observed when operating a vehicle. Fatigue and hazardous road conditions add to this risk. Second, while income from employment is greater in other cities, stress from commuting factors become a factor for personal health. Ironically, stress from having to locate employment or being placed in a low-income situation might lead to a similar outcome. However, this
9595-548: The venue for conflicts over schools from local referendums to the corridors of the State House in Trenton. Boroughs continued to be incorporated by legislative act, with a major burst in the 1920s. These 20th century increases in the number of boroughs were sometimes caused by conflicts over road funds, causing Caldwell Township , Essex County, to divide into six municipalities by 1908, and with Clementon Township , Camden County fracturing into nine between 1915 and 1929. By
9696-538: The winning option was deemed to be that supported by a plurality , rather than an absolute majority, of voters. In the 1977 Australian referendum, the winner was chosen by the system of preferential instant-runoff voting (IRV). Polls in Newfoundland (1949) and Guam (1982), for example, were counted under a form of the two-round system , and an unusual form of TRS was used in the 1992 New Zealand poll. Although California has not held multiple-choice referendums in
9797-399: Was also slowed by the legislature deciding that no borough created thereafter could maintain a separate school system unless there were at least 400 children living within its limits. In February, though, Passaic County saw its only instance of boroughitis, with Pompton Lakes breaking away from Pompton Township , as residents of the new borough had felt they paid a disproportionate share of
9898-613: Was done; in 1859, the state allowed residents of each district to elect a road commissioner, who saw to it their road taxes were spent effectively. Many of these districts later became individual municipalities, with the road commissioner often the first mayor. Until 1875, municipalities had been created or modified only by special acts of the legislature, but a state constitutional amendment that year abolished special laws for individual municipalities. Thereafter, lawmakers passed general laws regarding municipalities, and left incorporation of new ones to referendums in areas wanting redress, and to
9999-568: Was due in part to another economic depression, the Panic of 1893 , which had occurred with Democrat Grover Cleveland in the White House , and in part because some Democrats, like Republicans before them, had proven corrupt. The increasing commuter population also played a role; Bergen County contained (and still does) many commuter communities because of its proximity to New York City. These new residents were strongly Republican, as contrasted with
10100-444: Was required. In 1882, the legislature expanded this measure to allow areas of less than 2 square miles (5.2 km) to become borough commissions with some autonomy within the township. Another impetus towards more municipalities developed in the 1870s, with the New Jersey public soured on the railroads because of the Panic of 1873 . The newly Democratic legislature passed laws that ended tax exemptions on railroad-owned lands. Much of
10201-562: Was unique in New Jersey, with, until 1894, several commuter suburbs in a single township, something rare elsewhere in the state. The town-meeting style of government then prescribed for townships proved ill-suited to those changing times. The New Jersey Constitution gave the state government in Trenton relatively weak powers over the townships, but from time to time the legislature attempted reform. The townships were divided into road districts, with residents appointed to see that maintenance
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