132-492: Banff National Park is Canada's first national park , established in 1885 as Rocky Mountains Park . Located in Alberta's Rocky Mountains , 110–180 kilometres (68–112 mi) west of Calgary , Banff encompasses 6,641 square kilometres (2,564 sq mi) of mountainous terrain, with many glaciers and ice fields , dense coniferous forest, and alpine landscapes. Provincial forests and Yoho National Park are neighbours to
264-455: A subarctic climate with three ecoregions , including montane , subalpine , and alpine . The forests are dominated by Lodgepole pine at lower elevations and Engelmann spruce in higher ones below the treeline, above which is primarily rocks and ice. Mammal species such as the grizzly bear , cougar , wolverine , elk , bighorn sheep and moose are found, along with hundreds of bird species. Reptiles and amphibians are also found but only
396-558: A town of Alberta , though still subject to the National Parks Act and federal authority in regards to planning and development. In its 2014 census , the town of Banff had a permanent population of 8,421 as well as 965 non-permanent residents for a total population of 9,386. The Bow River flows through the town of Banff, with the Bow Falls on the outskirts of town. Lake Louise, a hamlet 54 km (34 mi) northwest of
528-684: A country dependent on natural resources, Canada's national parks represent a compromise between the demand for profit from the land's resources and tourism and the need for preservation and sustainable development . While conservationist ideas and a Canadian desire towards getting back to nature were evident in the early development of national parks in Canada, a greater role was played by chambers of commerce, local governments, promoters of tourism, and recreational groups who advocated for profit-driven commercial development, while incorporating wildlife preservation when possible. Canada's national parks allowed
660-624: A faster rate. As a tactic to increase the number of people travelling to and through national parks, members of each constituency surrounding national parks began to advocate for the construction of well-built roads, including the development of the Trans-Canada Highway . As the main highway travelling through the Canadian Rockies, the Trans-Canada Highway has provided accessible visitation and commerce to
792-404: A healthy ecosystem exists. Ecosystems in national parks have often been damaged due to the exploitation of resources, the expansion of tourism, and external land use practices outside national parks. Through Parks Canada realizing the necessity of managing national parks by human hands to maintain biotic and abiotic components, Parks Canada placed an emphasis on ecological integrity within
924-592: A large diurnal range owing to the relative dryness of the air. Banff National Park spans three ecoregions , including montane , subalpine , and alpine . The subalpine ecoregion, which consists mainly of dense forest, comprises 53 percent of Banff's area. 27 percent of the park is located above the tree line , in the alpine ecoregion. The tree line in Banff lies approximately at 2,300 m (7,500 ft), with open meadows at alpine regions and some areas covered by glaciers. A small portion (3 percent) of
1056-470: A limited number of species have been recorded. The mountains are formed from sedimentary rocks which were pushed east over newer rock strata, between 80 and 55 million years ago. Over the past few million years, glaciers have at times covered most of the park, but today are found only on the mountain slopes though they include the Columbia Icefield , the largest uninterrupted glacial mass in
1188-498: A mandate for the Banff-Bow Valley Study to draft management recommendations. As with other national parks, Banff is required to have a Park Management Plan. On a provincial level , the park area and the included communities (other than the town of Banff which is an incorporated municipality) are administered by Alberta Municipal Affairs as Improvement District No. 9 (Banff) . The park was originally considered as
1320-753: A member of the Blackfeet tribe." Traditionally, Plains peoples were divided into "bands": groups of families who migrated together for hunting and defence. The bands of the Piegan, as given by Grinnell, are: Ahahpitape, Ahkaiyikokakiniks, Kiyis, Sikutsipmaiks, Sikopoksimaiks, Tsiniksistsoyiks, Kutaiimiks, Ipoksimaiks, Silkokitsimiks, Nitawyiks, Apikaiviks, Miahwahpitsiks, Nitakoskitsipupiks, Nitikskiks, Inuksiks, Miawkinaiyiks, Esksinaitupiks, Inuksikahkopwaiks, Kahmitaiks, Kutaisotsiman, Nitotsiksisstaniks, Motwainaiks, Mokumiks, and Motahtosiks. Hayden gives also Susksoyiks. In 2014, researchers reported on their sequencing of
1452-591: A minor shift towards preservationist attitudes over Canada's parks as recreational use and development was still permitted. The initial ideal of national parks was to create uninhabited wilderness. Creating this required the displacement of Indigenous and non-Indigenous residents who lived within the intended park boundaries, and restrictions on how these residents had previously used the land and resources within parks for subsistence. Jasper National Park , established in 1907, restricted income-generating activities such as hunting, along with culturally valuable practices of
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#17327717379651584-535: A prairie restoration. The bison grazing patterns help to maintain a variety of prairie biodiversity. In Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site , removing Norway rats which were accidentally introduced to the area, is conducted because they eat eggs, as well as juvenile and adult seabirds, and reduce the seabird population. Staff monitor for the return of rats by trapping and poison baits for recovering native seabird populations. Through parks policies and operation practices, Parks Canada has recognized
1716-425: A recreational area for visitors offering multiple leisure activities – the original wildlife policy viewed wildlife in Banff only as game or pests up until the 1960s and 1970s. As ecological awareness increased, management procedures expanded with the inclusion of public participation in many management decisions. Simultaneously, the increase in human construction (such as new highways) on the natural landscape increased
1848-696: A variety of landscapes that mark Canada's natural heritage. On July 20, 1871, the Crown Colony of British Columbia committed to Confederation with Canada. Under the union's terms, Canada was to begin construction of a transcontinental railway to connect the Pacific Coast to the eastern provinces. As the Canadian Pacific Railway surveyors began to study the land in 1875, the location of the country's natural resources sprouted further interest. Evidence of minerals quickly introduced
1980-563: A wide range of protected areas, encompassing National Historic Sites , National Marine Conservation Areas (NMCA), and National Park Reserves. Canada established its first national park in Banff in 1885, and has since expanded its national park system to include 37 national parks and 11 national park reserves. Canada's first national park , located in Banff , was established in 1885. Tourism and commercialization dominated early park development, followed closely by resource extraction. Commodifying
2112-560: A worldview of ecology and abundance to one where the environment acted as a limited resource. Created in 1909, the Commission of Conservation became the Canadian forum for conservation issues, acting as an advisory and consultative body used to answer questions related to conservation and better utilization of Canada's natural and human resources. The Commission focused on a concept that maximized future profits through good management in
2244-840: Is a classic dip slope mountain. Just to the north of the Banff townsite, Castle Mountain is composed of numerous Cambrian age rock formations. The uppermost section of the peak consists of relatively harder dolomite from the Eldon Formation. Below that lies the less dense shales of the Stephen Formation and the lowest exposed cliffs are limestones of the Cathedral Formation . Dogtooth mountains, such as Mount Louis , exhibit sharp, jagged slopes. The Sawback Range, which consists of nearly vertical dipping sedimentary layers, has been eroded by cross gullies . The erosion of these almost vertical layers of rock strata in
2376-604: Is accelerating. In Banff National Park alone, in 1985 there were 365 glaciers but by 2005, 29 glaciers had disappeared. The total glaciated area dropped from 625 to 500 square kilometres (241 to 193 sq mi) in that time period. The largest glaciated areas include the Waputik and Wapta Icefields , which both lie on the Banff-Yoho National Park border. Wapta Icefield covers approximately 80 km (31 sq mi) in area. Outlets of Wapta Icefield on
2508-482: Is approximately 13 km (8 mi) in length and 30 km (12 sq mi) in area, is the major outlet of the Columbia Icefield that flows into Banff National Park. Between the years 1893 and 1953, Saskatchewan Glacier had retreated a distance of 1,364 m (4,475 ft), with the rate of retreat between the years 1948 and 1953 averaging 55 m (180 ft) per year. Overall, the glaciers of
2640-681: Is at a higher altitude. During winter months, temperatures in Banff are moderated, compared to other areas of central and northern Alberta, due to Chinook winds and other influences from British Columbia. The mean low temperature during January is −15 °C (5 °F), and the mean high temperature is −5 °C (23 °F) for the town of Banff. However, temperatures can drop below −20 °C (−4.0 °F) with wind chill values dropping below −30 °C (−22.0 °F). Weather conditions during summer months are warm, with high temperatures during July averaging 22 °C (72 °F), and daily low temperatures averaging 7 °C (45 °F), leading to
2772-646: Is considerably less than in Yoho National Park on the western side of the divide in British Columbia, where 884 mm (34.8 in) is received at Wapta Lake and 616 mm (24.3 in) at Boulder Creek annually. Being influenced by altitude, snowfall is also greater at higher elevations. As such, 234 cm (92 in) of snow falls on average each year in the Banff townsite, while 304 cm (120 in) falls in Lake Louise, which
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#17327717379652904-582: Is currently one NMCA Reserve: Two areas are under consideration as a National Marine Conservation Area or NMCA Reserve: In addition to national parks, a National Landmarks program was foreseen in the 1970s and 1980s, but has not been established beyond a single property. Landmarks were intended to protect specific natural features considered "outstanding, exceptional, unique, or rare to this country. These natural features would typically be isolated entities and of scientific interest." To date, only one Landmark has been established— Pingo National Landmark —in
3036-414: Is expected that park reserves will become national parks under the National Parks Act when the land claims are resolved. These include: The following areas have been proposed as Parks or Reserves, studied, and discussed among stakeholders: In addition, Parks Canada is considering other areas for future national parks: National Marine Conservation Areas (NMCAs) are a relatively new creation within
3168-882: Is home to several cultural institutions, including the Banff Centre , the Whyte Museum , the Buffalo Nations Luxton Museum , Cave and Basin National Historic Site , and several art galleries . Throughout its history, Banff has hosted many annual events, including Banff Indian Days which began in 1889, and the Banff Winter Carnival. Since 1976, The Banff Centre has organized the Banff Mountain Film Festival . In 1990, Banff incorporated as
3300-612: The Public Works Construction Act was passed, providing continued funding for the public works projects. New projects included construction of a new registration facility at Banff's east gate and construction of an administrative building in Banff. By 1940, the Icefields Parkway reached the Columbia Icefield area of Banff and connected Banff and Jasper. Most of the infrastructure present in the national park dates from public work projects enacted during
3432-622: The 1990 United States Census . In 2010 the US Census reported 105,304 persons who identified as Blackfeet ("alone" or "in combination" with one or more races and/or tribes.) The Piegan (also known as the Pikuni, Piikuni, Pikani, and Piikáni) are one of the three original tribes of the Blackfoot Confederacy (a "tribe" here refers to an ethnic or cultural group with a shared name and identity). The Piegan are closely related to
3564-662: The Algonquian -language family indicate that the Blackfoot had long lived in an area west of the Great Lakes . Like others in this language family, the Blackfoot language is agglutinative . The people practiced some agriculture and were partly nomadic. They moved westward after they adopted use of horses and guns, which gave them a larger range for bison hunting. They became part of the Plains Indians cultures in
3696-603: The Banff Springs snail ( Physella johnsoni ) that is found in the hot springs of Banff, and the Woodland caribou . Mountain pine beetles have caused a number of large-scale infestations in Banff National Park, feeding on the phloem of mature lodgepole pines. Alberta's first known outbreak occurred in 1940, infecting 43 km (17 sq mi) of forest in Banff. A second major outbreak occurred in
3828-521: The Blackfoot Confederacy ; the Siksika and Kainai are the others. The Piegan dominated much of the northern Great Plains during the nineteenth century. After their homelands were divided by the nations of Canada and the United States of America making boundaries between them, the Piegan people were forced to sign treaties with one of those two countries, settle in reservations on one side or
3960-498: The Canada jay , American three-toed woodpecker , mountain bluebird , Clark's nutcracker , mountain chickadee and pipit are frequently found in the lower elevations. The white-tailed ptarmigan is a ground bird that is often seen in the alpine zones. Rivers and lakes are frequented by over a hundred different species including loon , heron and mallard which spend their summers in the park. Endangered species in Banff include
4092-758: The Front Ranges consisting of from north to south, the Palliser , Sawback and Sundance Ranges . The Banff townsite is in the Front Ranges. Just outside the park to the east lie the foothills that extend from Canmore at the eastern entrance of the park eastward into the Great Plains. Well west of the park, the Western Ranges of the Rockies pass through Yoho and Kootenay National Parks. Though
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4224-614: The Government of Canada enacted the Unemployment and Farm Relief Act which provided public works projects in the national parks during the Great Depression . In Banff, workers constructed a new bathhouse and pool at Upper Hot Springs , to supplement Cave and Basin. Other projects involved road building in the park, tasks around the Banff townsite and construction of a highway connecting Banff and Jasper . In 1934,
4356-663: The Jurassic periods (600–145 m.y.a.). However, rocks as young as the lower Cretaceous (145–66 m.y.a.) can be found near the east entrance and on Cascade Mountain above the Banff townsite. These sedimentary rocks formed at the bottom of shallow seas between 600 and 175 m.y.a. and were pushed east during the Laramide orogeny . Mountain building in Banff National Park ended approximately 55 m.y.a. The Canadian Rockies may have risen up to 8,000 metres (26,000 ft) approximately 70 m.y.a. Once mountain formation ceased, erosion carved
4488-915: The Kainai Nation (also known as the "Blood Tribe"), and the Siksika Nation (also called the "Blackfoot Nation"); together they are sometimes collectively referred to as "the Blackfoot" or "the Blackfoot Confederacy ". Ethnographic literature most commonly uses "Blackfoot people", and Canadian Blackfoot people use the singular Blackfoot. The tribal governments and the US government use the term "Blackfeet", as in Blackfeet Nation , as used on their official tribe website. The term ᓱᖽᐧᖿ Siksika , derived from ᓱᖽᐧᖿᖱᖾᖳᐡ Siksikáíkoan (a Blackfoot person), may also be used as self-identification. In English, an individual may say, "I am Blackfoot" or "I am
4620-602: The Mistaya River to Saskatchewan Crossing , where it converges with the Howse and North Saskatchewan River . Bow Summit is the highest elevation crossed by a public road in Canada. The North Saskatchewan River flows east from Saskatchewan Crossing, out of Banff, into what is known as David Thompson Country, and onto Edmonton. The David Thompson Highway follows the North Saskatchewan River, past
4752-449: The National Parks Act was established. Under this act, mineral exploration and development were banned and only limited use of timber was permitted within the parks. For Canada to continue its economic success through resource development, the boundaries of Canada's national parks were altered prior to the 1930 Act in order to exclude resource rich land from park areas. The exclusion of resource development in Canada's national parks marked
4884-602: The Northwest Territories . Another was proposed at the same time (1984)— Nelson Head National Landmark —on the southern tip of Banks Island , also in the Northwest Territories. It was to include some 180 km (70 sq mi), 40 km (25 mi) of coastline, and protect the sea cliffs at Nelson Head and Cape Lambton. Durham Heights were to be included, which reach an elevation of 747 m (2,450 ft). The legislation providing for
5016-564: The Winter Olympics in Banff, with the first bid for the 1964 Winter Olympics , which were eventually awarded to Innsbruck , Austria . Canada narrowly lost a second bid, for the 1968 Winter Olympics , which were awarded to Grenoble , France. Once again, Banff launched a bid to host the 1972 Winter Olympics , with plans to hold the Olympics at Lake Louise. The 1972 bid was controversial, as environmental lobby groups strongly opposed
5148-473: The 1980s, Parks Canada moved to privatize many park services such as golf courses, and added user fees for use of other facilities and services to help deal with budget cuts. In 1990, the town of Banff was incorporated , giving local residents more say regarding any proposed developments. In the 1990s, development plans for the park, including expansion at Sunshine Village, were under fire with lawsuits filed by Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society (CPAWS). In
5280-561: The Aboriginal groups who had used the region. Jasper is a large park in the southern, frequently visited portion of Canada, and one of many parks geared towards tourism more than preservation. Most parks are designed to have the appeal of uninhabited wilderness while also having amenities and roads to facilitate visitors. Human activity within the park was allowed, but primarily only those activities that generated revenue, such as snowboarding and lodging for tourists. Some have claimed that
5412-521: The Acadians who comprised approximately 85 percent of the over 1,500 people who were displaced to create the park. Many inhabits dispossessed of their land by Parks Canada resisted, and the Acadian residents' resistance of eviction was extensive enough to delay the official opening of the park until 1979. Through protest and civil disobedience, they won greater compensation from the government to address
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5544-452: The Banff side of the continental divide include Peyto, Bow , and Vulture Glaciers . Bow Glacier retreated an estimated 1,100 m (3,600 ft) between the years 1850 and 1953, and since that period, there has been further retreat which has left a newly formed lake at the terminal moraine . Peyto Glacier has lost 70 percent of its volume since record keeping began and has retreated approximately 2,000 m (6,600 ft) since 1880;
5676-636: The Banff, Jasper, Yoho and Kootenay National Parks have been officially designated land as wilderness in national parks. The boundaries of all communities in national parks are changed and the developments of commerce in their communities are restricted. Profit no longer became priority and initiative for preservation through ecological integrity increased. To maintain or restore ecological integrity, ecosystem restorations are implemented in many parks, attempting to bring back damaged ecosystems to their original healthy state and making them sustainable. For example, Grasslands National Park brought back Bison bison for
5808-590: The Blackfeet Reservation in Montana is the size of Delaware , and the three Blackfoot reserves in Alberta have a much smaller area. The Blackfeet hold belief "in a sacred force that permeates all things, represented symbolically by the sun whose light sustains all things". The Blackfeet have "manly-hearted women". These were recorded as acting in many of the social roles of men. This includes
5940-458: The Blackfeet people suffered declines due to infectious disease epidemics. They had no natural immunity to Eurasian diseases, and the 1837 smallpox epidemic on the Plains killed 6,000 Blackfeet, as well as thousands more in other tribes. The Blackfoot also suffered from starvation because of disruption of food supplies and war. When the last buffalo hunt failed in 1882, that year became known as
6072-610: The Brewsters. Mount Norquay ski area was also developed during the 1930s, with the first chair lift installed there in 1948. Since 1968, when the Banff Springs Hotel was winterized, Banff has been a year-round destination. In the 1950s, the Trans-Canada Highway was constructed, providing another transportation corridor through the Bow Valley, making the park more accessible. Canada launched several bids to host
6204-580: The Canadian Rockies lost 25 percent of their mass during the 20th century. Under the Köppen climate classification , the park has a subarctic climate ( Dfc ) with cold, snowy winters, and mild summers. The climate is influenced by altitude with lower temperatures generally found at higher elevations. Located on the eastern side of the Continental Divide, Banff National Park receives 472 millimetres (18.6 in) of precipitation annually. This
6336-541: The DNA of a 12,500+-year-old infant skeleton in west-central Montana, found in close association with several Clovis culture artifacts. It showed strong affinities with all existing Native American populations. There is preliminary evidence of human habitation in north central Montana that may date as far back as 5000 years. There was evidence that the people had made substantial use of buffalo jumps from as early as AD 300. The Piegan people may be more recent arrivals in
6468-530: The Great Depression. Alternative service camps for conscientious objectors were set up in Banff during World War II , with camps at Lake Louise, Stoney Creek, and Healy Creek. These camps were largely populated by Mennonites from Saskatchewan . Winter tourism in Banff began in February 1917, with the first Banff Winter Carnival. It was marketed to a regional middle class audience, and became
6600-540: The Labrador Inuit Park Impacts and Benefits Agreement with Inuit Association. As with the Ivvavik agreement, it ensures that Inuit can continue to use land and resources as their traditional activities and keep their exclusive relationship with the land and ecosystems. In addition, they agreed to manage the park cooperatively. A seven-member co-operative management board will be established to advise
6732-675: The Landmark required a formal request be made by the Minister of the Environment within 10 years (until 1994). None was ever made. [REDACTED] Canada portal [REDACTED] Geography portal Piikani The Piegan ( Blackfoot : ᑯᖱᖿᖹ Piikáni ) are an Algonquian-speaking people from the North American Great Plains . They are the largest of three Blackfoot-speaking groups that make up
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#17327717379656864-624: The Northwest Territories. Qausuittuq, Quttinirpaaq, Sirmilik and Ukkusiksalik, in Nunvut. Akami-Uapishkᵁ-KakKasuak-Mealy Mountains and Torngat Mountains in Newfoundland and Labrador. Sable Island, Nova Scotia. The Bruce Peninsula and Rouge in Ontario. Wapusk, Manitoba, and Gwaii Haanas and Gulf Islands in British Columbia. A national park reserve is an area administered and protected like a national park but subject to Indigenous land claims . It
6996-408: The Rockies. Erosion from water and ice have carved the mountains into their current shapes. Throughout its history, Banff National Park has been shaped by tension between conservationist and land exploitation interests. The park was established on November 25, 1885, as Banff Hot Springs Reserve, in response to conflicting claims over who discovered hot springs there and who had the right to develop
7128-522: The Rocky Mountains Park Bill was proposed, it elicited various criticisms at the time, one being the implicit contradiction between the exploitation of resources within this national reservation. However, the overarching nineteenth century ideology that lumbering and mining would contribute to the usefulness of the reserve as opposed to depreciating the park overshadowed the concerns of resource exploitation. The natural resources within
7260-620: The Sawback Range has resulted in formations that appear like the teeth on a saw blade. Erosion and deposition of higher elevation rock layers has resulted in scree deposits at the lowest elevations of many of the mountains. Banff National Park has numerous large glaciers and icefields, 100 of which can be observed from the Icefields Parkway . Small cirque glaciers are fairly common in the Main Ranges, in depressions on
7392-565: The Stoney Nakoda. With the admission of British Columbia to Canada on July 20, 1871, Canada agreed to build a transcontinental railroad . Construction of the railroad began in 1875, with Kicking Horse Pass chosen, over the more northerly Yellowhead Pass , as the route through the Canadian Rockies. Ten years later, on November 7, 1885, the last spike was driven in Craigellachie, British Columbia . With conflicting claims over
7524-429: The area of Banff was fixed at 6,697 km (2,586 sq mi), with the passage of the National Parks Act . The act, which took effect May 30, 1930, also renamed the park Banff National Park , named for the Canadian Pacific Railway station, which in turn was named after the Banffshire region in Scotland. With the construction of a new east gate in 1933, Alberta transferred 0.84 km (0.32 sq mi) to
7656-490: The area that is now Banff National Park was home to many Indigenous Peoples, including the Stoney Nakoda , Ktunaxa , Tsuut'ina , Kainaiwa , Piikani , Siksika , and Plains Cree . Indigenous Peoples utilized the area to hunt, fish, trade, travel, survey and practice culture. Many areas within Banff National Park are still known by their Stoney Nakoda names such as Lake Minnewanka and the Waputik Range . Cave and Basin served as an important cultural and spiritual site for
7788-400: The area, as there is strong evidence that, beginning about 1730, their Algonquian-speaking ancestors migrated southwest from what today is Saskatchewan . Before that, they may have lived further east, as many Algonquian-speaking peoples have historically lived along the Atlantic Coast, and others around the Great Lakes . Linguistic studies of the Blackfoot language in comparison to others in
7920-500: The area. The highway is designed to provide a heavy flow of traffic, while also including many accessible pull-offs and picnic areas. With a high frequency of travelers and many destinations to stop, tourism boomed after the Trans-Canada Highway was established. As the highway travels through Banff and the Bow Valley area, it includes scenic views of most of the mountains, and an environment rich with wildlife. With an increase in tourism to Rocky Mountain Park, growth and prosperity came to
8052-442: The bid, which had sponsorship from Imperial Oil . Bowing to pressure, Jean Chrétien , then the Minister of Environment, the government department responsible for Parks Canada, withdrew support for the bid, which was eventually lost to Sapporo , Japan. When nearby Calgary hosted the 1988 Winter Olympics , the cross-country ski events were held at the Canmore Nordic Centre Provincial Park at Canmore, Alberta , located just outside
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#17327717379658184-424: The bird sanctuary in Point Pelee, began developing. In order to push their views further, this movement, headed by James B. Harkin and Arthur Oliver Wheeler , was forced to argue that divine scenery was itself a source of profit – tourism – in order to push aside what they saw as a far greater avenue of exploitation: resource extraction. By 1930, even the conservation movements within Canada came to understand that
8316-407: The centerpiece of local boosters aiming to attract visitors, which were a low priority for the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR). The carnival featured a large ice palace, which in 1917 was built by World War I internees. Carnival events included cross-country skiing , ski jumping , curling , snowshoe , and skijoring . In the 1930s, the first downhill ski resort, Sunshine Village , was developed by
8448-458: The construction of mines and resource exploitation in Canada's previously untouched wilderness. Exploration led to the discovery of hot springs near Banff, Alberta , and in November 1885, the Canadian Government made the springs public property, protecting them from possible private ownership and exploitation. This event brought about the beginning of Canada's movement towards preserving land and setting it aside for public usage as national parks. By
8580-425: The country that are protected by Parks Canada , a government agency. Parks Canada manages the National Parks and Reserves in order to protect and preserve the Canadian wildlife and habitat that fall within the ecosystems of the park, keep them safe, educate visitors, and ensure public enjoyment in ways that do not compromise the area for future generations. The areas that fall within Parks Canada's governance include
8712-456: The country's national parks had an entrenched system of profit-based motives. The Parks Canada Agency Act came into action in 1998 to ensure the protection of parks for further generations' use and national interest as places of cultural and historical importance. According to Parks Canada, ecological integrity is a state with three elements: non-living elements, living elements, and a series of ecological functions. By having all three elements,
8844-407: The creation of the first administrative body, the Dominion Parks Branch, now known as Parks Canada , to administer national parks in Canada. With the Branch in place, the parks system expanded from Banff eastward, combining both use and protection as the foundation to national park management. The major motives behind the creation of national parks in Canada were profit and preservation. Inspired by
8976-407: The development of a campground, trailer park, and other attractions. Cave and Basin Springs were forced to rebuild their bathing pools in 1904 and then again in 1912, because of growing public interest in the hot springs. By 1927, campground accommodations at Tunnel Mountain were adapting to include room for trailers as well as tents. Due to increased demand, the campground was extended, and by 1969 it
9108-427: The discovery of hot springs in Banff, Prime Minister John A. Macdonald decided to set aside a small reserve of 26 square kilometres (10 sq mi) around the hot springs at Cave and Basin as a public park known as the Banff Hot Springs Reserve in 1885. Under the Rocky Mountains Park Act , enacted on June 23, 1887, the park was expanded to 674 km (260 sq mi) and named Rocky Mountains Park . This
9240-506: The early 19th century. According to tribal oral histories, humans lived near the Rocky Mountain Front for thousands of years before European contact. The Blackfoot creation story is set near Glacier National Park in an area now known as the Badger-Two Medicine . The introduction of the horse is placed at about 1730, when raids by the Shoshoni prompted the Piegan to obtain horses from the Kutenai , Salish and Nez Perce . Early accounts of contact with European-descended people date to
9372-413: The eastern gates of Banff National Park on the Trans-Canada Highway . Since the original Rocky Mountains Park Act, subsequent acts and policies placed greater emphasis on conservation. With public sentiment tending towards environmentalism, Parks Canada issued major new policy in 1979, which emphasized conservation. The National Parks Act was amended in 1988, which made preserving ecological integrity
9504-501: The establishment and success of Yellowstone National Park in the United States, Canada blended the conflicting ideas of preservation and commercialism in order to satisfy its natural resource needs, conservationist views of modern management, a growing public interest in the outdoors and the new popularity of getting back to nature. This growing interest to escape the hustle and bustle of the city brought about ideas of conserving Canada's unspoiled wildernesses by creating public parks. As
9636-436: The federal minister of Environment for the matters of parks eco-management. Parks Canada recognized Indigenous knowledge and their unique historical and cultural relationship with the lands, and thus, Parks Canada started to cooperate with Indigenous people for park management. Following 1985, began the creation of new national parks or national park reserves, including Aulavik, Nááts’ihch’oh, Tuktut Nogait and Thaidene Nëné, in
9768-537: The first outfitters in Banff. From 1906, the Alpine Club of Canada organized climbs, hikes and camps in the park. By 1911, Banff was accessible by automobile from Calgary. Beginning in 1916, the Brewsters offered motorcoach tours of Banff. In 1920, access to Lake Louise by road was available, and the Banff-Windermere Road opened in 1923 to connect Banff with British Columbia . In 1902, the park
9900-743: The first priority in all park management decisions. The act also required each park to produce a management plan, with greater public participation. In 1984, Banff was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site , Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks World Heritage Site , together with the other national and provincial parks that form the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks , for the mountain landscapes containing mountain peaks, glaciers, lakes, waterfalls, canyons and limestone caves as well as fossil beds. With this designation came added obligations for conservation. During
10032-588: The frequency of human–animal conflicts. In 1988 wildlife began to be considered an integral part of the ecosystem. National Parks of Canada National parks of Canada Parcs Nationaux du Canada ( French ) [REDACTED] Herbert Lake in Banff National Park , Alberta [REDACTED] Distribution and location of national parks in Canada National parks of Canada are vast natural spaces located throughout
10164-476: The glacier is at risk of disappearing entirely within the next 30 to 40 years. The Columbia Icefield , at the northern end of Banff, straddles the Banff and Jasper National Park border and extends into British Columbia. Snow Dome , in the Columbia Icefield is a hydrological apex of North America, with water flowing via outlet glaciers to the Atlantic, Pacific and Arctic Oceans. Saskatchewan Glacier , which
10296-418: The glaciers in the park more thoroughly, and have been analyzing the impact that reduced glacier ice may have on water supplies to streams and rivers. Estimates are that 150 glaciers disappeared in the Canadian Rockies (areas both inside and outside Banff National Park) between the years 1920 and 1985. Another 150 glaciers disappeared between 1985 and 2005, indicating that the retreat and disappearance of glaciers
10428-514: The goals of sports hunting, tourism, and game conservation, as well as of those attempting to "civilize" the First Nations of the area. Early on, Banff was popular with wealthy European and American tourists, the former of which arrived in Canada via trans-Atlantic luxury liner and continued westward on the railroad. Some visitors participated in mountaineering activities, often hiring local guides. Guides Jim and Bill Brewster founded one of
10560-515: The governmental, academic, and public level. Canada's national parks were no longer places of unlimited natural resources, but were now considered a place where resources needed to be conserved through regulation to ensure future and continued use. J.B. Harkin , the Parks Commissioner in 1911, advocated the complete eradication of coal and mineral extraction in the parks. However, Harkin's vision did not come to fruition until 1930 when
10692-415: The hot springs for commercial interests. The conservationists prevailed when Prime Minister John A. Macdonald set aside the hot springs as a small protected reserve, which was later expanded to include Lake Louise and other areas extending north to the Columbia Icefield . Archaeological evidence found at Vermilion Lakes indicates the first human activity in Banff to 10,300 B.P. Prior to European contact,
10824-781: The importance of community involvement in order to sustain a healthy ecosystem. The transition towards developing parks as a place of preservation began with the National Parks Act of 1930. This event marked a shift in park management practices. Revised in 1979 under the National Parks Policy, the Act placed greater emphasis on preserving the natural areas in an unimpaired state through ecological integrity and restoration, moving away from development based heavily on profit. Acting as national symbols, Canada's national parks exist in every province and territory representing
10956-527: The importance of working together with Indigenous peoples and other communities to manage parks' healthy ecosystem within and around national parks. In 1984, Ivvavik National Park was established as a result of an Aboriginal land claim agreement. Now, Ivvavik is managed co-operatively by Parks Canada and the Inuvialuit. Their mutual goals are to protect wild life , keep the ecosystem healthy and protect their cultural resources. In addition, they ensure
11088-594: The late 1880s, Thomas White , Canada's Minister of the Interior, responsible for federal land management, Indian affairs, and natural resources extraction, began establishing a legislative motion towards establishing Canada's first national park in Banff. May 1911 marked one of the most significant events in the administration and development of national parks in Canada as the Dominion Forest Reserves and Parks Act received royal assent. This law saw
11220-497: The late 1970s and early 1980s in Banff and the surrounding Rocky Mountains region. Banff National Park is the most visited Alberta tourist destination and one of the most visited national parks in North America, with more than three million tourists annually. Tourism in Banff contributes an estimated CA$ 6 billion annually to the economy . A park pass is required for stopping in the park, and permit checks are common during
11352-462: The late eighteenth century. The fur trader James Gaddy and the Hudson's Bay Company explorer David Thompson , the first Whites recorded as seeing Bow River , camped with a group of Piegan during the 1787–1788 winter. In 1858 the Piegan in the United States were estimated to number 3,700. Three years later, Hayden estimated the population at 2,520. The population was at times dramatically lower when
11484-610: The loss of fishing within the park that had previously been their main source of income. The resistance of the Acadians impacted future park creation, as in 1979 Parks Canada announced that it would no longer use forced relocation in new parks. An advisory committee was created by Parks Canada in 2008 to reflect on the Kouchibouguac process and address outstanding grievances. In the late 19th century, Canadians changed their view of nature and resources as opinions started to focus on conservationist ideas. They were transitioning from
11616-521: The man-made Abraham Lake , and through David Thompson Country. North of Saskatchewan Crossing, the Icefields Parkway follows the North Saskatchewan River up to the Columbia Icefield . The Parkway crosses into Jasper National Park at Sunwapta Pass at 2,035 metres (6,677 ft) in elevation, and continues on from there to the Jasper townsite. The Canadian Rockies consist of several northwest–southeast trending ranges. Two main mountain ranges are within
11748-613: The mid-1990s, the Banff-Bow Valley Study was initiated to find ways to better address environmental concerns, and issues relating to development in the park. Banff National Park is in the Rocky Mountains on Alberta's western border with British Columbia in the Alberta Mountain forests ecoregion. By road, the town of Banff is 128 kilometres (80 mi) west of Calgary and 401 km (249 mi) southwest of Edmonton . Jasper National Park borders Banff National Park to
11880-425: The mountain ranges trend northwest to southeast, with sedimentary layering dipping down to the west at 40–60 degrees. This leads to dip slope landforms, with generally steeper east and north faces, and trellis drainage , where rivers and old glacial valleys followed the weaker layers in the rocks as they were relatively easily weathered and eroded. Classic examples are found at the Banff townsite proper: Mount Rundle
12012-634: The mountains into their present rugged shape. The erosion was first due to water, then was greatly accelerated by the Quaternary glaciation 2.5 million years ago. Glacial landforms dominate Banff's geomorphology , with examples of all classic glacial forms, including cirques , arêtes , hanging valleys , moraines , and U-shaped valleys . The pre-existing structure left over from mountain-building strongly guided glacial erosion: mountains in Banff include complex, irregular, anticlinal , synclinal , castellate, dogtooth, and sawback mountains. Many of
12144-410: The national parks that marked a shift from profit to preservation. The change in values is derived from the establishment of 1930 National Parks Act that limited use of resource for park management, and in 1979, under revised National Parks Policy, the maintenance of ecological integrity was prioritized for the preservation of national parks of Canada. In 1988, the National Parks Act was amended and
12276-400: The north, while Yoho National Park is to the west and Kootenay National Park is to the south. Kananaskis Country , which includes Bow Valley Wildland Provincial Park , Spray Valley Provincial Park , and Peter Lougheed Provincial Park , is located to the south and east of Banff. The Trans-Canada Highway passes through Banff National Park, from the eastern boundary near Canmore , through
12408-530: The north. Since the 1960s, park accommodations have been open all year, with annual tourism visits to Banff increasing to over 5 million in the 1990s. Millions more pass through the park on the Trans-Canada Highway . As Banff has over three million visitors annually, the health of its ecosystem has been threatened. In the mid-1990s, Parks Canada responded by initiating a two-year study which resulted in management recommendations and new policies that aim to preserve ecological integrity. Banff National Park has
12540-636: The other of the border, and be enrolled in one of two government-like bodies sanctioned by North American nation-states. These two successor groups are the Blackfeet Nation , a federally recognized tribe in northwestern Montana , U.S., and the Piikani Nation , a recognized " band " in Alberta , Canada. Today many Piegan live with the Blackfeet Nation with tribal headquarters in Browning, Montana . There were 32,234 Blackfeet recorded in
12672-626: The park system. There are currently three NMCAs: Fathom Five National Marine Park and Saguenay–St. Lawrence Marine Park were created prior to the NMCA concept, and subsequently classified as an NMCA without changing their legal names. NMCAs have a different mandate than their terrestrial counterparts. They are designed for sustainable use, although they usually also contain areas designed to protect ecological integrity . Similar to national park reserves, National Marine Conservation Area Reserves are intended to become full NMCAs once claims are resolved. There
12804-589: The park, as did Ivvavik National Park in the Northern Yukon. Through grassroots organizations and political lobbying, Indigenous residents of these areas were able to have greater influence over the process of park creation. For both Kluane and Ivvavik parks, Indigenous organizations protested and testified to Parliamentary Committees, describing how these restrictions infringed on their ability to provide for themselves through traditional fishing, hunting, and trapping. Ivvavik National Park, established in 1984,
12936-409: The park, at lower elevations, is in the montane ecoregion. Lodgepole pine forests dominate the montane region of Banff, with Engelmann spruce , willow , aspen , occasional Douglas-fir and a few Douglas maple interspersed. Engelmann spruce are more common in the subalpine regions of Banff, with some areas of lodgepole pine, and subalpine fir . The montane areas in the Bow Valley, which tend to be
13068-638: The park, each consisting of numerous subranges. The western border of the park follows the crest of the Main Ranges (also known as the Park Ranges ), which is also the continental divide . The Main Ranges in Banff National Park include from north to south, the Waputik , Bow and Blue Ranges . The high peaks west of Lake Louise are part of the Bow Range. The eastern border of the park includes all of
13200-406: The park. The meme is based on a photograph of a Minnesotan couple visiting the park on the shore of Lake Minnewanka that was " crashed " by a Columbian ground squirrel ; the photograph was published in major news sources around the world and the image of the squirrel was digitally manipulated into humorous photos. Banff National Park is managed by Parks Canada , under the National Parks Act which
13332-473: The park. This, along with other minor changes in the park boundaries in 1949, set the area of the park at 6,641 km (2,564 sq mi). In 1877, the First Nations of the area signed Treaty 7 , which gave Canada rights to explore the land for resources. At the beginning of the 20th century, coal was mined near Lake Minnewanka in Banff. For a brief period, a mine operated at Anthracite but
13464-476: The parks to profit Canada's national economy as well as conserving the natural areas for public and future use became an integrated method of park creation. The process of establishing national parks has often forced the displacement of Indigenous and non-Indigenous residents of areas within the proposed park boundaries. Conflicts between the creation of parks and the residents of the area have been negotiated through co-management practices, as Parks Canada acknowledged
13596-623: The parks were seen as being unlimited and therefore should be used as it was economically beneficial for the nation. By 1911, as Canadians became aware of the depletion occurring within America's natural resources, a debate focused on the extent of resource exploitation in Canada's national parks erupted. This debate began as early as 1906 at the Forestry Convention in Ottawa as it stimulated a new interest in conservation which spoke to
13728-399: The preferred habitat for wildlife, have been subjected to significant human development over the years. The park has 56 recorded mammal species. Grizzly bears and black bears inhabit the forested regions. Cougar , lynx , wolverine , red fox , weasel , river otter , coyote , and timber wolf are the primary predatory mammals. Elk , mule deer , and white-tailed deer are common in
13860-414: The present. Rather than preserving through non-use, the commission was concerned with managing resources for long-term gain. Other conservation-minded organizations, like the Alpine Club , had different ideas that focused on the preservation of natural wilderness and opposed any type of development or construction. This movement was successful as the creation of parks solely for preservation purposes, like
13992-558: The preservation of the Inuvialuit traditional way of living, including trapping, hunting and fishing. Another example is Torngat Mountains National Park . In 2005, it was established as a result of the Labrador Inuit Land Claims Agreement. It preserves the aboriginal rights of the Labrador Inuit in Canada, which are land, resources and self-government rights. The federal government also signed
14124-405: The public an avenue into nature, while also integrating ideas of preserving Canada's scenic landscape and wildlife populations in an era of development and major resource extraction. The integration of public visitation for national parks in Canada heavily contributed to the beginnings of public constituencies for certain parks. The parks who mobilized with a public constituency tended to prosper at
14256-695: The rarest large mammals in the park, but an avalanche in 2009 may have killed the last five remaining within park boundaries. The American bison was extirpated in Banff, but was brought back to the park in 2017, and one free-roaming herd lives within the protected area. Due to the harsh winters, the park has few reptile and amphibian species with only one species of toad, three species of frog, one salamander species and two species of snakes that have been identified. At least 280 species of birds can be found in Banff including bald and golden eagles , red-tailed hawk , osprey , and merlin , all of which are predatory species. Additionally, commonly seen species such as
14388-500: The regulation of ecological integrity was embodied. However, due to the conflicting interests of profit and preservation, the maintenance of ecological integrity has progressed slowly. The big movement on maintenance of ecological integrity has happened since 2001. Canada National Parks Act of 2001 reinforced the necessity of maintenance and restorations of ecological integrity by saving natural resources and ecosystem. It sets new principles for park management plans. Wilderness areas in
14520-453: The selection of which activities to allow had non-native bias, as it precluded traditional sources of subsistence such as hunting and trapping. Parks in less frequently visited, northern parts of Canada were created with more consideration of Aboriginal usage. Kluane National Park and Reserve in the Yukon initially had restrictions on hunting in order to preserve the presence of wildlife in
14652-401: The side of many mountains. As with the majority of mountain glaciers around the world, the glaciers in Banff are retreating . While Peyto Glacier is one of the longest continuously studied glaciers in the world, with research extending back to the 1970s, most of the glaciers of the Canadian Rockies have only been scientifically evaluated since the late 1990s. Glaciologists are now researching
14784-648: The starvation year. In 1900, there were an estimated 20,000 Blackfoot. In 1906 there were 2,072 under the Blackfeet Agency in Montana, and 493 under the Piegan band in Alberta, Canada. In the early 21st century, there are more than 35,000. In the US 2010 census, 105,304 people identified as Piegan Blackfeet, 27,279 of them full-blooded, the remainder self-identified as being of more than one race or, in some cases, with ancestry from more than one tribe, but they primarily identified as Blackfeet. The Blackfeet had controlled large portions of Alberta and Montana. Today
14916-405: The summer months, especially at Lake Louise and the start of the Icefields Parkway. A permit is not required if travelling straight through the park without stopping. Approximately 5 million people pass through Banff annually on the Trans-Canada Highway without stopping. In 2009, Banff Lake Louise Tourism hoped the appearance of the " Crasher Squirrel " internet meme would stimulate interest in
15048-527: The tallest peak entirely within the park is Mount Forbes at 3,612 metres (11,850 ft), Mount Assiniboine on the Banff- Mount Assiniboine Provincial Park border is slightly higher at 3,618 m (11,870 ft). The Canadian Rockies are composed of sedimentary rock , including shale , sandstone , dolomite and limestone . The vast majority of geologic formations in Banff range in age from Precambrian to
15180-640: The town of Banff, is home to the landmark Chateau Lake Louise at the edge of Lake Louise. Located 15 km (9.3 mi) from Lake Louise, Moraine Lake provides a scenic vista of the Valley of the Ten Peaks . This scene is on the back of the Canadian $ 20 bill in the 1969–1979 ("Scenes of Canada") series. The Lake Louise Mountain Resort is also near the village. Lake Louise is one of the most visited lakes in
15312-425: The town of Banff. The Banff hot springs were made more accessible after a tunnel was blasted in 1886. Horse-drawn carriages were replaced by buses and taxis, and by the 1960s small cabins had been largely replaced by hotels and motels as the community became geared towards building the national park as a tourist destination. In 1964, the first visitor service centre was established at Lake Louise Station, which included
15444-437: The towns of Banff and Lake Louise , and into Yoho National Park in British Columbia. The Banff townsite is the main commercial centre in the national park. The village of Lake Louise is at the junction of the Trans-Canada Highway and the Icefields Parkway, which extends north to the Jasper townsite. Banff, established in 1885, is the main commercial centre in Banff National Park, as well as a centre for cultural activities. Banff
15576-447: The valleys of the park, including around (and sometimes in) the Banff townsite, while moose tend to be more elusive, sticking primarily to wetland areas and near streams. In the alpine regions, mountain goat , bighorn sheep , marmot and pika are widespread. Other mammals such as beaver , porcupine , squirrel , chipmunk , snowshoe hare , and Columbian ground squirrel are the more commonly observed smaller mammals. Caribou were
15708-764: The west, while Kootenay National Park is located to the south and Kananaskis Country to the southeast. The main commercial centre of the park is the town of Banff , in the Bow River valley. The Canadian Pacific Railway was instrumental in Banff's early years, building the Banff Springs Hotel and Chateau Lake Louise , and attracting tourists through extensive advertising. In the early 20th century, roads were built in Banff, at times by war internees from World War I , and through Great Depression -era public works projects. The Icefields Parkway extends from Lake Louise , connecting to Jasper National Park in
15840-584: The world and is framed to the southwest by the Mount Victoria Glacier . The Icefields Parkway is a 230-kilometre-long (140 mi) road connecting Lake Louise to Jasper, Alberta. The Parkway originates at Lake Louise, and extends north up the Bow Valley, past Hector Lake , which is the largest natural lake in the park. Other scenic lakes near the parkway include Bow Lake , and Peyto Lakes , both north of Hector Lake. The Parkway then crosses Bow Summit (2,088 m (6,850 ft)), and follows
15972-476: Was Canada's first national park , and the third established in North America, after Yellowstone and Mackinac National Parks . The Canadian Pacific Railway built the Banff Springs Hotel and Lake Louise Chalet to attract tourists and increase the number of rail passengers. The Stoney Nakoda First Nation were removed from Banff National Park between the years 1890 and 1920. The park was designed to appeal to sportsmen, and tourists. The exclusionary policy met
16104-413: Was a major new policy, which emphasized conservation . In 1988, the National Parks Act was amended, making the maintenance of ecological integrity the top priority. The amendment also paved the way for non-governmental organizations to challenge Parks Canada in court, for breaches in adhering to the act. In 1994, Parks Canada established revised "Guiding Principles and Operating Policies", which included
16236-579: Was an example of and the beginning of co-management, which ensured that Indigenous voices would be heard and given equal representatives on parks boards. Non-Indigenous groups were also dispossessed from their land during the creation of national parks, such as the Acadians of Kouchibouguac National Park in New Brunswick . This park was created in 1969 and included recognition of the Aboriginal groups who had once resided there but no recognition of
16368-734: Was clear from policy making that tourism became secondary to resource exploitation. The resources that were exploited from the national parks were essential to the CPR's income as it freighted these resources across the country. In 1887, the Rocky Mountains Park Act was established under the Macdonald government and it reflected the importance of resource exploitation for Canada's economy. Under this regulation, national parks were not fully preserved in their natural states as mining, logging and grazing continued to be permitted. When
16500-429: Was demonstrated by the creation of Bankhead, a coal town on the road to Lake Minnewanka. This coal town was not viewed as a detriment to the overall scenery of Banff National Park, but was instead an added attraction for visitors. In this case, resource exploitation and tourism worked in conjunction with each other to create a more profitable national park. Although tourism and resource development could work together, it
16632-586: Was done by men of various Slavic origins although Ukrainians constituted a majority of those held in Banff. Historical plaques and a statue erected by the Ukrainian Canadian Civil Liberties Association commemorate those interned at Castle Mountain, and at Cave and Basin National Historic Site where an interpretive pavilion dealing with Canada's first national internment operations opened in September 2013. In 1931,
16764-468: Was expanded to cover 11,400 km (4,400 sq mi), encompassing areas around Lake Louise, and the Bow , Red Deer , Kananaskis , and Spray rivers. Bowing to pressure from grazing and logging interests, the size of the park was reduced in 1911 to 4,663 km (1,800 sq mi), eliminating many eastern foothills areas from the park. Park boundaries changed several more times up until 1930, when
16896-413: Was passed in 1930. Over time, park management policies have increasingly emphasized environmental protection over development. In 1964, a policy statement was issued that reiterated ideals of conservation laid out in the 1930 act. With the controversial bid for the 1972 Winter Olympics, environmental groups became more influential, leading Parks Canada to withdraw its support for the bid. The 1979 Beaver Book
17028-562: Was shut down in 1904. The Bankhead mine, at Cascade Mountain , was operated by the Canadian Pacific Railway from 1903 to 1922. In 1926, the town was dismantled, with many buildings moved to the town of Banff and elsewhere. During World War I , immigrants from Austria-Hungary and Germany were sent to Banff to work in internment camps . The main camp was at Castle Mountain , and was moved to Cave and Basin during winter. Much early infrastructure and road construction
17160-456: Was the biggest campground in the national park system. Banff became a year-round recreational centre as the growth of winter sport activities provided added incentive for tourism. The implementation of T-bars and chairlifts on Banff's ski hills helped develop Banff into a ski and winter sports destination. Since the inception of Canada's national parks, business and profit has been a major element to their creation and development. Although tourism
17292-499: Was the first in Canada to be created through a comprehensive land claim settlement, and set a precedent for collaboration and co-management in future parks. In June 1984, the Inuvialuit Final Agreement was signed, which deviated from past parks by committing to a more extensive inclusion of Aboriginal interests and gave the Inuvialuit exclusive rights to hunting and harvesting game within the park. This agreement
17424-455: Was the first source of profit in the national parks, the exploitation of natural resources such as coal, lumber, and other minerals became another major area of revenue. These resources were found in abundance in the Rocky Mountains and were interpreted as being inexhaustible. Coal was the most plentiful and profitable of all the minerals and therefore its mining in parks was accepted by politicians and Canadian Pacific Railway officials. This
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