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77-603: It is known for its citrus fruit orchards and its export of wood. North of the city is an oil refinery , one of the largest in Syria, and a power station . The oil refinery is connected with Iraq by the Kirkuk–Baniyas pipeline (now defunct). On a nearby hill stands the Crusader castle of Margat (Qalaat el-Marqab), a huge Knights Hospitaller fortress built with black basalt stone. In Phoenician and Hellenistic times, it

154-402: A devolatilization process to separate usable oil from the waste asphaltene material. Certain cracked streams are particularly suitable to produce petrochemicals includes polypropylene, heavier polymers, and block polymers based on the molecular weight and the characteristics of the olefin specie that is cracked from the source feedstock. Oil refineries are large-scale plants, processing about

231-540: A publishing company incorporated in New York in February 1905 for the express purpose of publishing the encyclopedia. The five members of the encyclopedia's Editorial Board also served as the directors of the company. In 1912, the company's name was changed to The Encyclopedia Press. Publication of the encyclopedia's volumes was the sole business conducted by the company during the project's lifetime. The encyclopedia

308-454: A titular see . [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Vailhé, Siméon (1907). " Balanaea ". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia . Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 35°10′56″N 35°56′25″E  /  35.18222°N 35.94028°E  / 35.18222; 35.94028 Oil refinery An oil refinery or petroleum refinery

385-544: A Catholic perspective, including issues that divide Catholicism from Protestantism and other faith communities. Since the encyclopedia was first published starting in 1907 and has never been updated (versus the New Catholic Encyclopedia ), many of its entries may be out of date either with respect to the wider culture or to the Catholic ecclesiastical world. In particular, it predates the creation of

462-632: A broad range of several applications. Once separated and purified of any contaminants and impurities, the fuel or lubricant can be sold without further processing. Smaller molecules such as isobutane and propylene or butylenes can be recombined to meet specific octane requirements by processes such as alkylation , or more commonly, dimerization . The octane grade of gasoline can also be improved by catalytic reforming , which involves removing hydrogen from hydrocarbons producing compounds with higher octane ratings such as aromatics . Intermediate products such as gasoils can even be reprocessed to break

539-761: A capacity of 940,000 bbl/d (149,000 m /d) but effective run rates have been dramatically lower due to the impact of 20 years of sanctions , and SK Energy 's Ulsan in South Korea with 840,000 bbl/d (134,000 m /d) are the second and third largest, respectively. Prior to World War II in the early 1940s, most petroleum refineries in the United States consisted simply of crude oil distillation units (often referred to as atmospheric crude oil distillation units). Some refineries also had vacuum distillation units as well as thermal cracking units such as visbreakers (viscosity breakers, units to lower

616-800: A few percent sulfur -containing molecules, elemental sulfur is also often produced as a petroleum product. Carbon , in the form of petroleum coke , and hydrogen may also be produced as petroleum products. The hydrogen produced is often used as an intermediate product for other oil refinery processes such as hydrocracking and hydrodesulfurization . Petroleum products are usually grouped into four categories: light distillates (LPG, gasoline, naphtha), middle distillates (kerosene, jet fuel, diesel), heavy distillates, and residuum (heavy fuel oil, lubricating oils, wax, asphalt). These require blending various feedstocks, mixing appropriate additives, providing short-term storage, and preparation for bulk loading to trucks, barges, product ships, and railcars. This classification

693-428: A heavy, long-chained oil into a lighter short-chained one, by various forms of cracking such as fluid catalytic cracking , thermal cracking , and hydrocracking . The final step in gasoline production is the blending of fuels with different octane ratings, vapor pressures , and other properties to meet product specifications. Another method for reprocessing and upgrading these intermediate products (residual oils) uses

770-430: A hundred thousand to several hundred thousand barrels of crude oil a day. Because of the high capacity, many of the units operate continuously , as opposed to processing in batches , at steady state or nearly steady state for months to years. The high capacity also makes process optimization and advanced process control very desirable. Petroleum products are materials derived from crude oil ( petroleum ) as it

847-645: A large amount of steam and cooling water need to have an abundant source of water. Oil refineries, therefore, are often located nearby navigable rivers or on a seashore, nearby a port. Such location also gives access to transportation by river or by sea. The advantages of transporting crude oil by pipeline are evident, and oil companies often transport a large volume of fuel to distribution terminals by pipeline. A pipeline may not be practical for products with small output, and railcars, road tankers, and barges are used. Petrochemical plants and solvent manufacturing (fine fractionating) plants need spaces for further processing of

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924-658: A large volume of refinery products, or to mix chemical additives with a product at source rather than at blending terminals. The refining process releases a number of different chemicals into the atmosphere (see AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors ) and a notable odor normally accompanies the presence of a refinery. Aside from air pollution impacts there are also wastewater concerns, risks of industrial accidents such as fire and explosion, and noise health effects due to industrial noise . Many governments worldwide have mandated restrictions on contaminants that refineries release, and most refineries have installed

1001-462: A number of further chemical processes are integrated into it. For example, light hydrocarbons are steam-cracked in an ethylene plant, and the produced ethylene is polymerized to produce polyethene . To ensure both proper separation and environmental protection, a very low sulfur content is necessary in all but the heaviest products. The crude sulfur contaminant is transformed to hydrogen sulfide via catalytic hydrodesulfurization and removed from

1078-604: A project to republish the 1907-1913 original edition of the '"Catholic Encyclopedia on the Internet . Knight founded the Web site New Advent to host the undertaking. Volunteers from several countries, including the United States, Canada , France , and Brazil helped in the transcription of the original text material. The site first went online two years later in 1995, and transcription work ended after four years efforts in 1997. In 2007, Catholic Answers internet website published

1155-551: A shoreline necklace of refineries, built in the early 20th century before this area was populated, and associated chemical plants are adjacent to urban areas in Richmond , Martinez , Pacheco , Concord , Pittsburg , Vallejo and Benicia , with occasional accidental events that require " shelter in place " orders to the adjacent populations. A number of refineries are located in Sherwood Park, Alberta , directly adjacent to

1232-546: A watermarked version derived from page scans. This version has since been replaced with a transcription of the Encyclopedia similar to that found at the New Advent web site. The Catholic Answers transcription, however, is an exact transcription of the original text, whereas the New Advent version at times modernizes certain usages (e.g., using the titles of Old Testament books found in several Protestant versions of

1309-544: Is an industrial process plant where petroleum (crude oil) is transformed and refined into products such as gasoline (petrol), diesel fuel , asphalt base , fuel oils , heating oil , kerosene , liquefied petroleum gas and petroleum naphtha . Petrochemical feedstock like ethylene and propylene can also be produced directly by cracking crude oil without the need of using refined products of crude oil such as naphtha. The crude oil feedstock has typically been processed by an oil production plant . [1] There

1386-433: Is based on the way crude oil is distilled and separated into fractions. Over 6,000 items are made from petroleum waste by-products, including fertilizer , floor coverings , perfume , insecticide , petroleum jelly , soap , vitamin capsules . The image below is a schematic flow diagram of a typical oil refinery that depicts the various unit processes and the flow of intermediate product streams that occurs between

1463-408: Is cooled by exchanging heat with the incoming crude oil. All of the fractions (i.e., the overhead naphtha, the sidecuts, and the bottom residue) are sent to intermediate storage tanks before being processed further. A party searching for a site to construct a refinery or a chemical plant needs to consider the following issues: Factors affecting site selection for oil refinery: Refineries that use

1540-561: Is entirely new, and not merely a translation or a compilation from other encyclopedic sources. The editors have insisted that the articles should contain the latest and most accurate information to be obtained from the standard works on each subject. However, "from standard works" allows that some of the articles from European contributors such as Pierre Batiffol (French) and Johann Peter Kirsch (German) had previously been published in whole or in part in Europe and were translated and edited for

1617-424: Is processed in oil refineries . The majority of petroleum is converted to petroleum products, which includes several classes of fuels. Oil refineries also produce various intermediate products such as hydrogen , light hydrocarbons, reformate and pyrolysis gasoline . These are not usually transported but instead are blended or processed further on-site. Chemical plants are thus often adjacent to oil refineries or

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1694-413: Is removed from the distillation column by a pumparound system as shown in the diagram below. As shown in the flow diagram, the overhead distillate fraction from the distillation column is naphtha. The fractions removed from the side of the distillation column at various points between the column top and bottom are called sidecuts . Each of the sidecuts (i.e., the kerosene, light gas oil, and heavy gas oil)

1771-475: Is then processed further in the other refinery processing units. The CDU is often referred to as the atmospheric distillation unit because it operates at slightly above atmospheric pressure. Below is a schematic flow diagram of a typical crude oil distillation unit. The incoming crude oil is preheated by exchanging heat with some of the hot, distilled fractions and other streams. It is then desalted to remove inorganic salts (primarily sodium chloride). Following

1848-590: Is usually an oil depot at or near an oil refinery for the storage of incoming crude oil feedstock as well as bulk liquid products. In 2020, the total capacity of global refineries for crude oil was about 101.2 million barrels per day. Oil refineries are typically large, sprawling industrial complexes with extensive piping running throughout, carrying streams of fluids between large chemical processing units, such as distillation columns. In many ways, oil refineries use many different technologies and can be thought of as types of chemical plants . Since December 2008,

1925-648: The Allies , during the Oil Campaign of World War II . Another close contender for the title of hosting the world's oldest oil refinery is Salzbergen in Lower Saxony , Germany. Salzbergen's refinery was opened in 1860. At one point, the refinery in Ras Tanura , Saudi Arabia owned by Saudi Aramco was claimed to be the largest oil refinery in the world. For most of the 20th century, the largest refinery

2002-738: The Council of Nicaea in 325 and was exiled by the Arians in 335 later Timotheus was at both the Robber Council of Ephesus in 449 and the Council of Chalcedon in 451. In 536, Theodorus was one of the signatories of a letter to the emperor Justinian against Severus of Antioch and other non-Chalcedonians. Stephanus participated in the Second Council of Constantinople in 553. During the Crusades , Balanea became an episcopal see of

2079-619: The Edeleanu process . This increased the refining efficiency compared to pure fractional distillation and allowed a massive development of the refining plants. Successively, the process was implemented in France, Germany, U.S. and in a few decades became worldwide spread. In 1910 Edeleanu founded "Allgemeine Gesellschaft für Chemische Industrie" in Germany, which, given the success of the name, changed to Edeleanu GmbH, in 1930. During Nazi's time,

2156-701: The Holy Bible (used in Protestant churches / denominations ), such as "1 & 2 Chronicles" and "Obadiah", in place of the titles traditionally used differently in the Vulgate ( Latin ) / Douay–Rheims (Roman Catholic) Bible versions, (such as titles of "1 & 2 Paralipomenon" and "Abdias") and Biblical citation formatting (i.e., the Catholic Answers version retains the original's usage of Roman numerals for chapter numbers [e.g., Genesis I,1], while

2233-773: The Latin Church , called Valenia or Valania in the West. It was situated within the Principality of Antioch and was suffragan to the Latin metropolitan see of Apamea, whose archbishop intervened in the nomination of bishops of the suffragan see in 1198 and 1215. For reasons of security, the bishop lived in Margat Castle. No longer a residential bishopric, Balanea is today listed by the Catholic Church as

2310-672: The Vatican City State (1929) and the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), which introduced changes to Catholic practice. The writing of the encyclopedia began on January 11, 1905, under the supervision of five editors: The first edition was initially printed by the Robert Appleton Company of New York City . The volumes came out sequentially, the first two in 1907 and the last three in 1912: The editors had their first editorial meeting at

2387-493: The hydrocarbons to be separated by distillation . Since the lighter liquid products are in great demand for use in internal combustion engines, a modern refinery will convert heavy hydrocarbons and lighter gaseous elements into these higher-value products. Oil can be used in a variety of ways because it contains hydrocarbons of varying molecular masses , forms and lengths such as paraffins , aromatics , naphthenes (or cycloalkanes ), alkenes , dienes , and alkynes . While

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2464-416: The octane rating of their product gasoline, lower the sulfur content of their diesel fuel and home heating fuels to comply with environmental regulations and comply with environmental air pollution and water pollution requirements. In the 19th century, refineries in the U.S. processed crude oil primarily to recover the kerosene . There was no market for the more volatile fraction, including gasoline, which

2541-422: The petrochemical industry with increased risk of various cancers, such as mesothelioma . It also found reduced risks of other cancers, such as stomach and rectal . The systematic review did mention that several of the associations were not due to factors directly related to the petroleum industry, rather were related to lifestyle factors such as smoking . Evidence for adverse health effects for nearby residents

2618-408: The vacuum distillation unit may also produce fractions that can be refined into end products such as spindle oil used in the textile industry, light machine oil, motor oil, and various waxes. The crude oil distillation unit (CDU) is the first processing unit in virtually all petroleum refineries. The CDU distills the incoming crude oil into various fractions of different boiling ranges, each of which

2695-399: The viscosity of the oil). All of the many other refining processes discussed below were developed during the war or within a few years after the war. They became commercially available within 5 to 10 years after the war ended and the worldwide petroleum industry experienced very rapid growth. The driving force for that growth in technology and in the number and size of refineries worldwide was

2772-628: The 12th century. In the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127), a workshop called the "Fierce Oil Workshop", was established in the city of Kaifeng to produce refined oil for the Song military as a weapon. The troops would then fill iron cans with refined oil and throw them toward the enemy troops, causing a fire – effectively the world's first " fire bomb ". The workshop was one of the world's earliest oil refining factories where thousands of people worked to produce Chinese oil-powered weaponry. Prior to

2849-860: The 1800s, primarily producing kerosene for oil lamps. In the early twentieth century, the introduction of the internal combustion engine and its use in automobiles created a market for gasoline that was the impetus for fairly rapid growth of the petroleum industry. The early finds of petroleum like those in Ontario and Pennsylvania were soon outstripped by large oil "booms" in Oklahoma , Texas and California . Samuel Kier established America's first oil refinery in Pittsburgh on Seventh Avenue near Grant Street, in 1853. Polish pharmacist and inventor Ignacy Łukasiewicz established an oil refinery in Jasło , then part of

2926-589: The Austro-Hungarian Empire (now in Poland ) in 1854. The first large refinery opened at Ploiești , Romania, in 1856–1857. It was in Ploiesti that, 51 years later, in 1908, Lazăr Edeleanu , a Romanian chemist of Jewish origin who got his PhD in 1887 by discovering amphetamine , invented, patented and tested on industrial scale the first modern method of liquid extraction for refining crude oil,

3003-523: The City of Edmonton , which has a population of over 1,000,000 residents. NIOSH criteria for occupational exposure to refined petroleum solvents have been available since 1977. Modern petroleum refining involves a complicated system of interrelated chemical reactions that produce a wide variety of petroleum-based products. Many of these reactions require precise temperature and pressure parameters.   The equipment and monitoring required to ensure

3080-611: The Encyclopedia. Those who wrote new articles in English include Anthony Maas and Herbert Thurston . Under the copyright law of the United States , all works published in the United States before 1928 are considered in the public domain . In 1993, Kevin Knight, a 26-year-old resident of Denver, Colorado , decided, during the visit of Pope John Paul II (1920-2005, served 1978-2005), to that city for World Youth Day , to launch

3157-471: The New Advent version uses Arabic numerals throughout [e.g., Genesis 1:1]). Another transcription is hosted by Catholic Online internet website. Similarly to the Catholic Answers transcription, it uses an exact rendition of the original text. Scanned copies of the 1907-1913 Encyclopedia are available on Google Books , at the Internet Archive , and at Wikimedia Commons . Wikisource also hosts

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3234-584: The U.S. from 1976 until 2014 when the small Dakota Prairie Refinery in North Dakota began operation. More than half the refineries that existed in 1981 are now closed due to low utilization rates and accelerating mergers. As a result of these closures total US refinery capacity fell between 1981 and 1995, though the operating capacity stayed fairly constant in that time period at around 15,000,000 barrels per day (2,400,000 m /d). Increases in facility size and improvements in efficiencies have offset much of

3311-453: The United States. The first volume appeared in March 1907 and the last three volumes appeared in 1912, followed by a master index volume in 1914 and later supplementary volumes. It was designed "to give its readers full and authoritative information on the entire cycle of Catholic interests, action and doctrine". The Catholic Encyclopedia was published by the Robert Appleton Company (RAC),

3388-555: The company was bought by the Deutsche Erdöl-AG and Edeleanu, being of Jewish origin, moved back to Romania. After the war, the trademark was used by the successor company EDELEANU Gesellschaft mbH Alzenau (RWE) for many petroleum products, while the company was lately integrated as EDL in the Pörner Group . The Ploiești refineries, after being taken over by Nazi Germany , were bombed in the 1943 Operation Tidal Wave by

3465-555: The construction of new refineries may have also contributed to rising fuel prices in the United States. Additionally, many refineries (more than 100 since the 1980s) have closed due to obsolescence and/or merger activity within the industry itself. Environmental and safety concerns mean that oil refineries are sometimes located some distance away from major urban areas. Nevertheless, there are many instances where refinery operations are close to populated areas and pose health risks. In California's Contra Costa County and Solano County ,

3542-667: The crude oil and depending on the demands of the market, refineries can produce different shares of petroleum products. The largest share of oil products is used as "energy carriers", i.e. various grades of fuel oil and gasoline . These fuels include or can be blended to give gasoline, jet fuel , diesel fuel , heating oil , and heavier fuel oils. Heavier (less volatile ) fractions can also be used to produce asphalt , tar , paraffin wax , lubricating and other heavy oils. Refineries also produce other chemicals , some of which are used in chemical processes to produce plastics and other useful materials. Since petroleum often contains

3619-487: The desalter, the crude oil is further heated by exchanging heat with some of the hot, distilled fractions and other streams. It is then heated in a fuel-fired furnace (fired heater) to a temperature of about 398 °C and routed into the bottom of the distillation unit. The cooling and condensing of the distillation tower overhead is provided partially by exchanging heat with the incoming crude oil and partially by either an air-cooled or water-cooled condenser. Additional heat

3696-482: The district. Four pro-government militiamen and two soldiers were also killed in the area in clashes with rebel fighters. Baniyas has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification Csa ). Rainfall is higher in winter than in summer. The average annual temperature in Baniyas is 19.3 °C (66.7 °F). About 862 mm (33.94 in) of precipitation falls annually. The bishopric of Balanea

3773-553: The early 21st century Syrian civil war , rebel sources reported that a massacre took place on 2 May 2013, perpetrated by regime forces. On 3 May, another massacre was, according to SOHR , perpetrated in the Ras al-Nabaa district of Baniyas causing hundreds of Sunni residents to flee their homes. According to one opposition report, a total of 77 civilians, including 14 children, were killed. Another two opposition groups documented, by name, 96–145 people who are thought to have been executed in

3850-434: The editors subsequently held 134 formal meetings to consider the plan, scope and progress of the multi-volumed reference work, culminating in publication ending on April 19, 1913. A first supplement was published nine years later in 1922; a second supplement in nine loose-leaf sections was published by The Gilmary Society three decades later, between 1950 and 1958. In 1912, a special completely illustrated, commemorative volume

3927-443: The equipment needed to comply with the requirements of the pertinent environmental protection regulatory agencies. In the United States, there is strong pressure to prevent the development of new refineries, and no major refinery has been built in the country since Marathon's Garyville, Louisiana facility in 1976. However, many existing refineries have been expanded during that time. Environmental restrictions and pressure to prevent

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4004-412: The growing demand for automotive gasoline and aircraft fuel. In the United States, for various complex economic and political reasons, the construction of new refineries came to a virtual stop in about the 1980s. However, many of the existing refineries in the United States have revamped many of their units and/or constructed add-on units in order to: increase their crude oil processing capacity, increase

4081-514: The highly automated and technically advanced nature of modern petroleum refineries, nearly all processes are contained within engineering controls and represent a substantially decreased risk of exposure to workers compared to earlier times. However, certain situations or work tasks may subvert these safety mechanisms, and expose workers to a number of chemical (see table above) or physical (described below) hazards. Examples of these scenarios include: A 2021 systematic review associated working in

4158-542: The hundreds of different hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil are separated in a refinery into components that can be used as fuels , lubricants , and feedstocks in petrochemical processes that manufacture such products as plastics , detergents , solvents , elastomers , and fibers such as nylon and polyesters . Petroleum fossil fuels are burned in internal combustion engines to provide power for ships , automobiles , aircraft engines , lawn mowers , dirt bikes , and other machines. Different boiling points allow

4235-480: The inlet crude oil feedstock and the final end products. The diagram depicts only one of the literally hundreds of different oil refinery configurations. The diagram also does not include any of the usual refinery facilities providing utilities such as steam, cooling water, and electric power as well as storage tanks for crude oil feedstock and for intermediate products and end products. There are many process configurations other than that depicted above. For example,

4312-621: The late Northern Wei dynasty , the Chinese geographer, writer and politician Li Daoyuan introduced the process of refining oil into various lubricants in his famous work Commentary on the Water Classic . Crude oil was often distilled by Persian chemists , with clear descriptions given in handbooks such as those of Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi ( c.  865–925 ). The streets of Baghdad were paved with tar , derived from petroleum that became accessible from natural fields in

4389-411: The less profitable refineries. Raw or unprocessed crude oil is not generally useful in industrial applications, although "light, sweet" (low viscosity, low sulfur ) crude oil has been used directly as a burner fuel to produce steam for the propulsion of seagoing vessels. The lighter elements, however, form explosive vapors in the fuel tanks and are therefore hazardous, especially in warships . Instead,

4466-415: The lost physical capacity of the industry. In 1982 (the earliest data provided), the United States operated 301 refineries with a combined capacity of 17.9 million barrels (2,850,000 m ) of crude oil each calendar day. In 2010, there were 149 operable U.S. refineries with a combined capacity of 17.6 million barrels (2,800,000 m ) per calendar day. By 2014 the number of refinery had reduced to 140 but

4543-436: The molecules in crude oil include different atoms such as sulfur and nitrogen, the hydrocarbons are the most common form of molecules, which are molecules of varying lengths and complexity made of hydrogen and carbon atoms , and a small number of oxygen atoms. The differences in the structure of these molecules account for their varying physical and chemical properties , and it is this variety that makes crude oil useful in

4620-487: The nineteenth century, petroleum was known and utilized in various fashions in Babylon , Egypt , China , Philippines , Rome and Azerbaijan . However, the modern history of the petroleum industry is said to have begun in 1846 when Abraham Gessner of Nova Scotia , Canada devised a process to produce kerosene from coal. Shortly thereafter, in 1854, Ignacy Łukasiewicz began producing kerosene from hand-dug oil wells near

4697-522: The offices of the Archdiocese of New York 's newspaper The Messenger , on West 16th Street, New York City . The text received a nihil obstat from an official censor, Remy Lafort, on November 1, 1908, and an imprimatur from John Murphy Farley , then Archbishop of New York . This review process was presumably accelerated by the reuse of older authorized publications. In addition to frequent informal conferences and constant communication by letters,

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4774-464: The product stream via amine gas treating . Using the Claus process , hydrogen sulfide is afterward transformed to elementary sulfur to be sold to the chemical industry. The rather large heat energy freed by this process is directly used in the other parts of the refinery. Often an electrical power plant is combined into the whole refinery process to take up the excess heat. According to the composition of

4851-455: The proper progression of these processes is complex, and has evolved through the advancement of the scientific field of petroleum engineering . The wide array of high pressure and/or high temperature reactions, along with the necessary chemical additives or extracted contaminants, produces an astonishing number of potential health hazards to the oil refinery worker.  Through the advancement of technical chemical and petroleum engineering,

4928-626: The region. In the 9th century, oil fields were exploited in the area around modern Baku , Azerbaijan. These fields were described by the Arab geographer Abu al-Hasan 'Alī al-Mas'ūdī in the 10th century, and by Marco Polo in the 13th century, who described the output of those wells as hundreds of shiploads. Arab and Persian chemists also distilled crude oil in order to produce flammable products for military purposes. Through Islamic Spain , distillation became available in Western Europe by

5005-609: The time, reports of the health impacts of working in an oil refinery can be found as early as the 1800s. For instance, an explosion in a Chicago refinery killed 20 workers in 1890. Since then, numerous fires, explosions, and other significant events have from time to time drawn the public's attention to the health of oil refinery workers. Such events continue in the 21st century, with explosions reported in refineries in Wisconsin and Germany in 2018. However, there are many less visible hazards that endanger oil refinery workers. Given

5082-458: The total capacity increased to 18.02 million barrels (2,865,000 m ) per calendar day. Indeed, in order to reduce operating costs and depreciation, refining is operated in fewer sites but of bigger capacity. In 2009 through 2010, as revenue streams in the oil business dried up and profitability of oil refineries fell due to lower demand for product and high reserves of supply preceding the economic recession , oil companies began to close or sell

5159-621: The town of Krosno , Poland . Romania was registered as the first country in world oil production statistics, according to the Academy Of World Records . In North America, the first oil well was drilled in 1858 by James Miller Williams in Oil Springs, Ontario , Canada. In the United States, the petroleum industry began in 1859 when Edwin Drake found oil near Titusville , Pennsylvania . The industry grew slowly in

5236-420: The vast majority of these processes are automated and enclosed, thus greatly reducing the potential health impact to workers.   However, depending on the specific process in which a worker is engaged, as well as the particular method employed by the refinery in which he/she works, significant health hazards remain. Although occupational injuries in the United States were not routinely tracked and reported at

5313-601: The world's largest oil refinery has been the Jamnagar Refinery owned by Reliance Industries , located in Gujarat , India, with a processing capacity of 1.24 million barrels (197,000 m ) per day. Oil refineries are an essential part of the petroleum industry's downstream sector. The Chinese were among the first civilizations to refine oil. As early as the first century, the Chinese were refining crude oil for use as an energy source. Between 512 and 518, in

5390-577: Was a suffragan of Apamea , the capital of the Roman province of Syria Secunda , as is attested in a 6th-century Notitiae Episcopatuum . When Justinian established a new civil province, Theodorias, with Laodicea as metropolis, Balanea was incorporated into it, but continued to depend ecclesiastically on Apamea, till it obtained the status of an exempt bishopric directly subject to the Patriarch of Antioch. Its first known bishop, Euphration, took part in

5467-726: Was also weak, with the evidence primarily centering around neighborhoods in developed countries . Catholic Encyclopedia The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the Catholic Church , also referred to as the Old Catholic Encyclopedia and the Original Catholic Encyclopedia , is an English-language encyclopedia published in

5544-534: Was an important seaport. Some have identified it with the Hellenistic city of Leucas (from colonists from the island Lefkada ), in Greece, mentioned by Stephanus of Byzantium . It was a colony of Aradus , and was placed by Stephanus in the late Roman province of Phoenicia , though it belonged rather to the province of Syria . In Greek and Latin , it is known as Balanaea or Balanea (Βαλανέαι). During

5621-504: Was awarded to those patrons who contributed to the start of the enterprise in 1907 by buying multiple encyclopedia sets early on. There was controversy over the presence of The Catholic Encyclopedia on the shelves in public libraries in the United States with nativist protests that this violated the constitutional separation of church and state , including a successful court appeal in Belleville, New Jersey . The encyclopedia

5698-503: Was considered waste and was often dumped directly into the nearest river. The invention of the automobile shifted the demand to gasoline and diesel, which remain the primary refined products today. Today, national and state legislation require refineries to meet stringent air and water cleanliness standards. In fact, oil companies in the U.S. perceive obtaining a permit to build a modern refinery to be so difficult and costly that no new refineries were built (though many have been expanded) in

5775-658: Was designed to serve the Catholic Church , concentrating on information related to the Church and explaining matters from the Catholic point of view. It records the accomplishments of Catholics and others in nearly all intellectual and professional pursuits, including artists, educators, poets and scientists. While more limited in focus than other general encyclopedias, it was far broader in scope than previous efforts at comprehensive Catholic encyclopedias, which covered only internal Church affairs. It offers in-depth portrayals of historical and philosophical ideas, persons and events, from

5852-526: Was later updated over a half-century later under the auspices of the faculty of The Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C. and the successor New Catholic Encyclopedia was first published 53 years later in 1967, followed by several supplements during the next three decades. Then a revised second edition 35 years more in 2002. It too has been supplemented every few years since. The Catholic Encyclopedia and Its Makers states that: The work

5929-846: Was the Abadan Refinery in Iran . This refinery suffered extensive damage during the Iran–Iraq War . Since 25 December 2008, the world's largest refinery complex is the Jamnagar Refinery Complex, consisting of two refineries side by side operated by Reliance Industries Limited in Jamnagar, India with a combined production capacity of 1,240,000 barrels per day (197,000 m /d). PDVSA 's Paraguaná Refinery Complex in Paraguaná Peninsula , Venezuela , with

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