Jewish Babylonian Aramaic ( Aramaic : ארמית Ārāmît ) was the form of Middle Aramaic employed by writers in Lower Mesopotamia between the fourth and eleventh centuries. It is most commonly identified with the language of the Babylonian Talmud (which was completed in the seventh century), the Targum Onqelos , and of post-Talmudic ( Gaonic ) literature, which are the most important cultural products of Babylonian Jews . The most important epigraphic sources for the dialect are the hundreds of inscriptions on incantation bowls .
35-700: Baraita ( Jewish Babylonian Aramaic : בָּרַיְתָא , romanized: bārayṯā "external" or "outside"; pl. bārayāṯā or in Hebrew baraitot ; also baraitha , beraita ; Ashkenazi pronunciation: berayse ) designates a tradition in the Oral Torah of Rabbinical Judaism that is not incorporated in the Mishnah . Baraita thus refers to teachings "outside" of the six orders of the Mishnah . Originally, "Baraita" probably referred to teachings from schools outside
70-434: A reduced relative clause : 3. In an adverbial phrase . In the following, the subject is understood to be the same as that of the main clause: With a different subject, placed before the participle: More generally as a clause or sentence modifier: 4. Participles are used to form periphrastic verb tenses: The present participle forms the progressive aspect with the auxiliary verb be : The past participle forms
105-813: A battery of technical logical terms, such as tiyuvta (conclusive refutation) and tiqu (undecidable moot point), which are still used in Jewish legal writings, including those in other languages, and have influenced modern Hebrew . Like the other Judeo-Aramaic languages , it was written in the Hebrew alphabet . May his great name shall be blessed (Kaddish Shalem, 8th century) ַ ני נַטְרַנִי he supervised me נֵיעָרְבִינְהוּ וְנִכְתְּבִינְהוּ There are six major verb stems or verbal patterns (binyanim) in Jewish Babylonian Aramaic. The form pe‘al (פְּעַל) “to do”,
140-560: A participial phrase/clause based on one) plays the role of an adjective phrase . Such languages include Russian and other Slavic languages , Hungarian , and many Eskimo languages , such as Sirenik , which has a sophisticated participle system . Details can be found in the sections below or in the articles on the grammars of specific languages. Grammatical descriptions vary in the way these are treated. Some descriptive grammars treat such adverbial and adjectival participles as distinct lexical categories , while others include them both in
175-418: A passive participle within a passive voice construct. 6. As a gerund. The gerund is traditionally regarded as distinct from the present participle. A gerund can function transitively (e.g., "I like eating ice cream ") or intransitively (e.g., "I like swimming "). In both instances, a gerund functions nominatively rather than adjectivally or adverbially—whether as an object (e.g., "I like sleeping ") or as
210-418: A perfect participle in an active sense, e.g. profectus "having set out", hortātus "having encouraged", etc. The present and future participles are always active, the gerundive usually passive. Because a participle is an adjective as well as a verb, just like any other Latin adjective its ending changes according to the noun it describes. So when the noun is masculine, the participle must be masculine; when
245-426: A prefix (such as un- ) can preface adjectival participles: "a very frightened rabbit", " recently fallen leaves", " uninterested people". Some languages differentiate adjectival participles and adverbial participles . An adverbial participle (or a participial phrase/clause based on such a participle) plays the role of an adverbial phrase in the sentence in which it appears, whereas an adjectival participle (or
280-408: A purposely compact form (designed to both facilitate and necessitate oral transmission), many variant versions, additional explanations, clarifications and rulings were not included in the Mishnah. These were later compiled in works called barayata, often in the form of a list of teachings by one sage. Barayata can thus also designate collections of such traditions. The main collections of barayata are
315-526: A range of functions apart from adjectival modification. In European and Indian languages, the past participle is used to form the passive voice . In English, participles are also associated with periphrastic verb forms ( continuous and perfect ) and are widely used in adverbial clauses . In non-Indo-European languages, 'participle' has been applied to forms that are alternatively regarded as converbs (see Sirenik below), gerunds , gerundives , transgressives , and nominalised verbs in complement clauses. As
350-511: A result, 'participles' have come to be associated with a broad variety of syntactic constructions. The word participle comes from classical Latin participium , from particeps 'sharing, participation', because it shares certain properties of verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. The Latin grammatical term is a calque of the Greek grammatical term μετοχή : metochē , 'participation, participle'. The linguistic term, past participle ,
385-577: A single category of participles. Adverbial participles in certain languages may be called converbs , gerunds , or gerundives (though this is not consistent with the meanings of the terms gerund or gerundive as normally applied to English or Latin), or transgressives . Participles are often used to form certain grammatical tenses or grammatical aspects . The two types of participle in Modern English are termed present participle and past participle , respectively (often also referred to as
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#1732773128700420-412: A subject (e.g., " Sleeping is not allowed"). Although gerunds and present participles are morphologically identical, their grammatical functions differ substantially. Sometimes their morphological similarity can create contextual ambiguity, as Noam Chomsky pointed out in his well-known example: When the meaning is "The practice of flying a plane is dangerous," flying functions as a gerund; when
455-604: A verb and used as an adjective, as in a laughing face ". "Participle" is a traditional grammatical term from Greek and Latin that is widely used for corresponding verb forms in European languages and analogous forms in Sanskrit and Arabic grammar. In particular, Greek and Latin participles are inflected for gender , number and case , but also conjugated for tense and voice and can take prepositional and adverbial modifiers. Cross-linguistically, participles may have
490-443: Is Active Frequentative . The verbal pattern itpa'al is Passive Frequentative . The verbal pattern aphel is Active Causative . The verbal pattern itaphal is Passive Causative . The language has received considerable scholarly attention, as shown in the bibliography below. However, the majority of those who are familiar with it, namely Orthodox Jewish students of Talmud, are given no systematic instruction in
525-510: Is generally identical to the nominative neuter singular form of the past participle for all verbs. For the present participle there is no agreement. Examples in Nynorsk : The participles are marked in bold. The first example involves a present participle and the two latter examples involves a past participle. All present participles end with an -ande suffix. In Norwegian, the present participle may be used to form adjectives or adverbs denoting
560-402: Is illustrated by the following examples: In the first sentence, interesting functions transitively in a non-finite sense as a participle that expresses the object him , thereby forming the grammatical equivalent of "[that is] interesting him ". In the second and third sentences, interesting functions as a prepositive adjective modifying subject . An adverb (such as very or recently ) or
595-807: Is the one that became standard, falling together with the suffix -ing used to form verbal nouns . See -ing (etymology) . Modern English includes two traditional terms for its participles: In addition, various compound participles can be formed, such as having done , being done , having been doing , having been done . Details of participle formation can be found under English verbs and List of English irregular verbs . Participles, or participial phrases (clauses) formed from them, are used as follows: 1. As an adjective used in an attributive sense: Additionally, participles that express an adjectivally attributive meaning can be affixed to form adverbs, such as interestingly and excitedly . 2. In postpositive phrases. These are often regarded as functioning as
630-413: The -ing form and -ed/-en form ). The traditional terms are misleading because the participles do not necessarily correspond to tense: the present participle is often associated with the progressive (continuous) aspect, while the past participle is linked with the perfect aspect or passive voice. See the examples below: The first sentence is in the past tense ( were ), but a present participle expresses
665-454: The Bible and the prayer book , are of limited usefulness for this purpose, as they are in different dialects.) Talmudic Aramaic bears all the marks of being a specialist language of study and legal argumentation, like Law French , rather than a vernacular mother tongue, and continued in use for these purposes long after Judeo-Arabic had become the languages of daily life. It has developed
700-822: The Tosefta and the Halakhic Midrashim ( Mekhilta, Sifra and Sifre ). The authority of the barayata is somewhat less than that of the Mishnah. Nevertheless, these works are the basic "proof-text" cross-referenced by the Talmudic sages in their analysis and interpretation of the Mishna; see Gemara . Here, a teaching from the baraita is usually introduced by the Aramaic word tanya "It was orally taught" or by tanu rabanan "Our Rabbis have orally taught", whereas tnan "We have orally taught" introduces quotations from
735-617: The ge- prefix, which became y- in Middle English, has now been lost — except in some rare dialects such as the Dorset dialect , where it takes the form of a- ). Old English present participles were marked with an ending in -ende (or -iende for verbs whose infinitives ended in -ian ). In Middle English , the form of the present participle varied across regions: -ende (southwest, southeast, Midlands ), -inde (southwest, southeast), -and (north), -inge (southeast). The last
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#1732773128700770-400: The perfect aspect with the auxiliary verb have : 5. The past participle is used to form passive voice : Such passive participles can appear in an adjectival phrase: Adverbially: And in a nominative absolute construction, with a subject: Note that a past participle that complements a stative verb (e.g., "The files that are attached or "Our comrades who have fallen ") becomes
805-435: The present progressive tense , but such linguistic distinctions are neither recognized nor employed on a universal basis. Participles can be used adjectivally (i.e. without characteristics of canonical verbs) as attributive adjectives . Unlike standard verbs, participles don’t typically have objects or the usual modifiers that verbs have. However, they can be modified by adverbs such as very or slightly . The difference
840-630: The Mishnah. Anonymous barayata are often attributed to particular tannaim by the Talmud. In the Jerusalem Talmud , references to the baraita are less common. The style of the baraita is basically indistinguishable from that of the Mishna, but some come closer to Mishnaic idiom than others. For example, the second chapter of Kallah Rabbathi , a baraita compilation, is often appended to Pirkei Avot , as both are similar in style and content. Jewish Babylonian Aramaic language The language
875-541: The danger concerns "Planes that fly" or "Planes when they are flying" (i.e., in contrast to grounded planes ), flying is being used adjectivally as a participle. For more on the distinctions between these uses of the -ing verb form, see -ing : uses . For more details on uses of participles and other parts of verbs in English, see Uses of English verb forms , including the sections on the present participle and past participle . The following table summarises some of
910-540: The form Aph'el (אַפְעֵל) “let do”, and the form Pa'el (פַּעֵל) “like to do”, are all in the active voice. But the form Itpe'el (אִתְפְּעֵל), the form Itaph'al (אִתַפְעַל) and the form Itpa'al (אִתְפַּעַל) are essentially reflexive and usually function in a passive sense. The Aramaic verb has two participles : an active participle with suffix and a passive participle with suffix : |} The verbal pattern (binyan) pa‘el are frequentative verbs showing repeated or intense action. The verbal pattern pa'el
945-500: The language, and are expected to "sink or swim" in the course of their Talmudic studies, with the help of some informal pointers showing similarities and differences with Hebrew. Participle In linguistics, a participle (from Latin participium 'a sharing, partaking'; abbr. PTCP ) is a nonfinite verb form that has some of the characteristics and functions of both verbs and adjectives. More narrowly, participle has been defined as "a word derived from
980-475: The main Mishnaic-era yeshivas – although in later collections, individual barayata are often authored by sages of the Mishna ( Tannaim ). According to Maimonides ' Introduction to Mishneh Torah , the barayata were compiled by Hoshaiah Rabbah and Bar Kappara , although no other compilation was passed down that was similar to the Tosefta . Because the Mishnah encapsulates the entire Oral Law in
1015-457: The participle derives. According to Donatus there are four participles in Latin, as follows: However, many modern Latin grammars treat the gerundive as a separate part of speech. The perfect participle is usually passive in meaning, and thus mainly formed from transitive verbs, for example frāctus "broken", missus "sent (by someone)". However, certain verbs (called deponent verbs ) have
1050-534: The past participle has both active and passive uses. The following examples illustrate those concepts: In Old English , past participles of Germanic strong verbs were marked with a ge- prefix, as are most strong and weak past participles in Dutch and German today, and often by a vowel change in the stem. Those of weak verbs were marked by the ending -d , with or without an epenthetic vowel before it. Modern English past participles derive from these forms (although
1085-562: The possibility or convenience of performing the action prescribed by the verb. For example: This construction is allowed in Nynorsk, but not in Bokmål , where suffixes like -elig or -bar are used instead. Latin grammar was studied in Europe for hundreds of years, especially the handbook written by the 4th-century teacher Aelius Donatus , and it is from Latin that the name and concept of
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1120-424: The progressive aspect ( be standing ). The second sentence is in the future tense ( will ), but a past participle is used for the perfect aspect ( have cleaned ). Participles may also be identified with a particular voice : active or passive . Some languages (such as Latin and Russian) have distinct participles for active and passive uses. In English, the present participle is essentially an active participle, and
1155-607: The uses of participles in English: In all of the Scandinavian languages the past participle has to agree with the noun to some degree. All of the Scandinavian languages have mandatory agreement with the noun in number. Nynorsk and Swedish have mandatory agreement in both number and gender. Icelandic and Faroese have agreement in number, gender and case. The verb form used for the perfect (or " supine ") aspect
1190-633: Was closely related to other Eastern Aramaic dialects such as Mandaic . Its original pronunciation is uncertain, and has to be reconstructed with the help of these kindred dialects and of the reading tradition of the Yemenite Jews , and where available those of the Iraqi , Syrian and Egyptian Jews . The value of the Yemenite reading tradition has been challenged by Matthew Morgenstern . (The vocalized Aramaic texts with which Jews are familiar, from
1225-722: Was coined circa 1798 based on its participial form, whose morphology equates to the regular form of preterite verbs. The term, present participle , was first used circa 1864 to facilitate grammatical distinctions. Despite the taxonomical use of "past" and "present" as associated with the aforementioned participles, their respective semantic use can entail any tense, regardless of aspect, depending on how they are structurally combined. Some languages have extensive participial systems but English has only two participial forms, most commonly termed: Some grammars further distinguish passive participles as often associated with passive voice versus active participles as often associated with e.g.
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