Jewish Babylonian Aramaic ( Aramaic : ארמית Ārāmît ) was the form of Middle Aramaic employed by writers in Lower Mesopotamia between the fourth and eleventh centuries. It is most commonly identified with the language of the Babylonian Talmud (which was completed in the seventh century), the Targum Onqelos , and of post-Talmudic ( Gaonic ) literature, which are the most important cultural products of Babylonian Jews . The most important epigraphic sources for the dialect are the hundreds of inscriptions on incantation bowls .
41-749: The Tosefta ( Jewish Babylonian Aramaic : תוספתא , romanized: tosep̄tā "supplement, addition") is a compilation of Jewish Oral Law from the late second century, the period of the Mishnah and the Jewish sages known as the Tannaim . In many ways, the Tosefta acts as a supplement ( toseftā ) to the Mishnah. The Mishnah ( Hebrew : משנה ) is the basic compilation of the Oral law of Judaism; according to
82-813: A battery of technical logical terms, such as tiyuvta (conclusive refutation) and tiqu (undecidable moot point), which are still used in Jewish legal writings, including those in other languages, and have influenced modern Hebrew . Like the other Judeo-Aramaic languages , it was written in the Hebrew alphabet . May his great name shall be blessed (Kaddish Shalem, 8th century) ַ ני נַטְרַנִי he supervised me נֵיעָרְבִינְהוּ וְנִכְתְּבִינְהוּ There are six major verb stems or verbal patterns (binyanim) in Jewish Babylonian Aramaic. The form pe‘al (פְּעַל) “to do”,
123-642: A collection of over 11,000 fragments, which are currently being digitised and uploaded to an online archive. The Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford has a collection of 25,000 Genizah folios. Westminster College in Cambridge held 1,700 fragments, which were deposited by Lewis and Gibson in 1896. In 2013 the two Oxbridge libraries, the Bodleian Library at Oxford and Cambridge University Library , joined together to raise funds to buy
164-443: Is Active Frequentative . The verbal pattern itpa'al is Passive Frequentative . The verbal pattern aphel is Active Causative . The verbal pattern itaphal is Passive Causative . The language has received considerable scholarly attention, as shown in the bibliography below. However, the majority of those who are familiar with it, namely Orthodox Jewish students of Talmud, are given no systematic instruction in
205-614: Is the subject of a citizen-science project on the website Zooniverse . Project volunteers are enlisted to sort digitized fragments of the Cairo Genizah, in order to facilitate research on the fragments. The Friedberg Geniza Project is of great importance to research inasmuch as it includes all Genizah fragments and bibliographical data relating to them. Since 1986, the Princeton Geniza Lab has been studying and digitizing geniza manuscripts. Their projects include
246-701: The Ben Ezra Synagogue in Fustat or Old Cairo , Egypt . These manuscripts span the entire period of Middle-Eastern, North African, and Andalusian Jewish history between the 6th and 19th centuries CE, and comprise the largest and most diverse collection of medieval manuscripts in the world. The Genizah texts are written in various languages, especially Hebrew , Arabic , and Aramaic , mainly on vellum and paper, but also on papyrus and cloth. In addition to containing Jewish religious texts such as Biblical , Talmudic , and later Rabbinic works (some in
287-454: The Bible and the prayer book , are of limited usefulness for this purpose, as they are in different dialects.) Talmudic Aramaic bears all the marks of being a specialist language of study and legal argumentation, like Law French , rather than a vernacular mother tongue, and continued in use for these purposes long after Judeo-Arabic had become the languages of daily life. It has developed
328-549: The Kievian Letter . The Genizah remained in use until it was emptied by Western scholars eager for its material. A number of other genizot have provided smaller discoveries across the Old World, notably Italian ones such as that of Perugia . An 11th-century Afghan Geniza was found in 2011. The Cairo Genizah fragments were extensively studied, cataloged and translated by Paul E. Kahle . His book, The Cairo Geniza
369-574: The Letter of the Karaite elders of Ascalon ), are somewhat smaller, but still impressive: Goitein estimated their size at "about 10,000 items of some length, of which 7,000 are self-contained units large enough to be regarded as documents of historical value. Only half of these are preserved more or less completely." The number of documents added to the Genizah changed throughout the years. For example,
410-618: The Quran . Of particular interest to biblical scholars are several incomplete manuscripts of the original Hebrew version of Sirach . Solomon Schechter also found two fragments of the Damascus Document , other fragments of which were later found among the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran . The non-literary materials, which include court documents, legal writings, and the correspondence of the local Jewish community (such as
451-836: The University of Pennsylvania 's Katz Center for Advanced Judaic Studies , the British Library , the Hungarian Academy of Sciences , the National Library of Russia , Alliance Israélite Universelle , the Younes and Soraya Nazarian Library at the University of Haifa and multiple private collections around the world. Most fragments come from the geniza chamber of the Ben Ezra Synagogue, but additional fragments were found at excavation sites near
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#1732765176563492-404: The halacha had been originally a matter of dispute – even though it has now been reported anonymously – we follow the Mishnah rather than take up the episode which places the rabbis at variance. Whenever R. Meir and R. Yosi disagree, the halacha follows R. Yosi. Nevertheless, since in the Mishnah, Rebbe [Judah ha-Nasi] mentioned only R. Meir's opinion, we follow R. Meir. Sherira then brings down
533-515: The Genizah but not of its significance, immediately recognized the importance of the material. With the financial assistance of his Cambridge colleague and friend Charles Taylor , Schechter made an expedition to Egypt, where, with the assistance of the Chief Rabbi, he sorted and removed the greater part of the contents of the Genizah chamber. Agnes and Margaret joined him there en route to Sinai (their fourth visit in five years) and he showed them
574-610: The Genizah include sacred and religious materials as well as great deal of secular writings. The Genizah materials include a wide range of content. Among the literary fragments, the most popular categories are liturgical texts, Biblical and related texts, and Rabbinic literature. There are also materials with philosophical, scientific, mystical, and linguistic writings. Among the non-literary items there are legal documents and private letters. Also found were school exercises and merchants' account books, as well as communal records of various sorts. The normal practice for genizot (pl. of genizah)
615-513: The Mishnah to named Tannaim . It also augments the Mishnah with additional glosses and discussions. It offers additional aggadic and midrashic material, and it sometimes contradicts the Mishnah in the ruling of Jewish law or in attributing in whose name a law was stated. According to the Talmud , the Tosefta was redacted by Ḥiya bar Abba and one of his students, Hoshaiah . Whereas the Mishna
656-423: The Mishnah. There, he writes: We do not follow the opinion of R. Ḥiya, as expressed in a Baraita, if he disputes with Rebbe [Judah ha-Nasi]. For example, let us suppose that a certain halacha had originally been a matter of dispute between R. Meir and R. Yosi; but Rebbe [Judah ha-Nasi] decided to record in the Mishnah only R. Meir's opinion [anonymously]. Had R. Ḥiya then come along, in the Tosefta, and stated that
697-563: The Princeton Geniza Project, a database of more than 30,000 records and 4,600 transcriptions of geniza texts. In early 2021, under the leadership of director Marina Rustow and in partnership with Daniel Stoekl Ben Ezra , the Lab began exploring machine learning as a method of transcribing geniza documents, using handwritten text recognition applications. Indian anthropologist and writer Amitav Ghosh recounts his study of
738-514: The Tosefta as we have it developed from a proto-Tosefta recension that formed much of the basis for later Amoraic debate. Others, such as Hanokh Albeck , theorize that the Tosefta is a later compendium of several baraitot collections that were in use during the Amoraic period. More recent scholarship, such as that of Yaakov Elman , concludes that since the Tosefta, as we know it, must be dated linguistically as an example of Middle Hebrew 1 , it
779-560: The Westminster collection (now renamed the Lewis-Gibson collection) after it was put up for sale for £ 1.2 million. This is the first time the two libraries have collaborated for such a fundraising effort. Many of the fragments found in the Cairo Genizah may be dated to the early centuries of the second millennium CE, and there are a fair number of earlier items as well as a number of nineteenth-century pieces. The manuscripts in
820-584: The chamber which Agnes reported was "simply indescribable". The Genizah fragments have now been archived in various libraries around the world. The Taylor -Schechter collection at Cambridge is the largest, by far, single collection, with nearly 193,000 fragments (137,000 shelf-marks). There are a further 43,000 fragments at the Jewish Theological Seminary Library . The John Rylands University Library in Manchester holds
861-583: The commentary cited above and was also published separately as The Tosefta: translated from the Hebrew (6 vols, 1977–86). Translations of the tosefta are in various stages of progress at www.sefaria.org. Other attempts such as by Eli Gurevich's English translation are also being made. Archived 7 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine . [REDACTED] Media related to Tosefta at Wikimedia Commons Jewish Babylonian Aramaic language The language
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#1732765176563902-464: The culture and language of their contemporary society. The documents are invaluable as evidence for how colloquial Arabic of this period was spoken and understood. They also demonstrate that the Jewish creators of the documents were part of their contemporary society: they practiced the same trades as their Muslim and Christian neighbors, including farming; they bought, sold, and rented properties. The importance of these materials for reconstructing
943-461: The early medieval period, despite difficulties in interpreting the currency units cited and other aspects of the data. They have invariably been cited in discussions of the medieval Islamic economy since the 1930s, when this aspect of the collection was researched, mostly by French scholars. Many of the items in Cairo Genizah are not a complete manuscript, but are instead a fragment of one or two leaves, many of which are damaged themselves. Similarly,
984-540: The form Aph'el (אַפְעֵל) “let do”, and the form Pa'el (פַּעֵל) “like to do”, are all in the active voice. But the form Itpe'el (אִתְפְּעֵל), the form Itaph'al (אִתַפְעַל) and the form Itpa'al (אִתְפַּעַל) are essentially reflexive and usually function in a passive sense. The Aramaic verb has two participles : an active participle with suffix and a passive participle with suffix : |} The verbal pattern (binyan) pa‘el are frequentative verbs showing repeated or intense action. The verbal pattern pa'el
1025-562: The form of a searchable database. Two critical editions have been published. The first was that of Moses Samuel Zuckermandl in 1882, which relied heavily on the Erfurt manuscript of the Tosefta. Zuckermandl's work has been characterized as "a great step forward" for its time. This edition was reprinted in 1970 by Rabbi Saul Lieberman , with additional notes and corrections. In 1955, Saul Lieberman first began publishing his monumental Tosefta ki-Feshutah . Between 1955 and 1973, ten volumes of
1066-481: The language, and are expected to "sink or swim" in the course of their Talmudic studies, with the help of some informal pointers showing similarities and differences with Hebrew. Cairo Geniza The Cairo Geniza , alternatively spelled the Cairo Genizah , is a collection of some 400,000 Jewish manuscript fragments and Fatimid administrative documents that were kept in the genizah or storeroom of
1107-486: The new edition were published, representing the text and the commentaries on the entire orders of Zera'im, Mo'ed and Nashim. In 1988, three volumes were published posthumously on the order of Nezikin, including tractates Bava Kama , Bava Metzia , and Bava Batra . Lieberman's work has been called the "pinnacle of modern Tosefta studies." Major commentaries on the Tosefta include those by: The Tosefta has been translated into English by Rabbi Jacob Neusner and his students in
1148-564: The number of documents added were fewer between 1266 and circa 1500, when most of the Jewish community had moved north to the city of Cairo proper, and saw a rise around 1500 when the local community was increased by refugees from Spain . It was they who brought to Cairo several documents that shed a new light on the history of Khazaria and Kievan Rus' , namely, the Khazar Correspondence , the Schechter Letter , and
1189-835: The original hands of the authors), the Genizah gives a detailed picture of the economic and cultural life of the Mediterranean region, especially during the 10th to 13th centuries. Manuscripts from the Cairo Geniza are now dispersed among a number of libraries, including the Cambridge University Library , the Jewish Theological Seminary of America , the John Rylands Library , the Bodleian Library ,
1230-439: The pages of a single manuscript often became separated. It is not uncommon to find the pages of one manuscript housed in three or four different modern libraries. On the other hand, non-literary writings often lost their value with the passage of time, and were left in the Genizah while still more or less intact. The materials comprise a vast number of texts, including many parts of Jewish religious writings and even fragments from
1271-721: The reverse of this example: "Or, let us suppose that Rebbe [Yehuda Ha-Nassi] in the Mishnah records a dispute between R. Meir and R. Yosi. However, R. Ḥiya prefers R. Meir's argument and records it in a Baraita without mentioning R. Yosi's opposing view. In such a case, we do not accept [R. Ḥiya's] decision." Three manuscripts exist of the Tosefta: The Editio Princeps was printed in Venice in 1521 as an addendum to Isaac Alfasi 's Halakhot . All four of these sources, together with many Cairo Geniza fragments, have been published online by Bar Ilan University in
Tosefta - Misplaced Pages Continue
1312-691: The social and economic history for the period between 950 and 1250 cannot be overemphasized. Judaic scholar Shelomo Dov Goitein created an index for this time period which covers about 35,000 individuals. This included about 350 "prominent people," among them Maimonides and his son Abraham , 200 "better known families", and mentions of 450 professions and 450 goods. He identified material from Egypt, Israel , Lebanon , Syria (but not Damascus or Aleppo ), Tunisia , Sicily , and even covering trade with India . Cities mentioned range from Samarkand in Central Asia to Seville and Sijilmasa , Morocco to
1353-589: The synagogue and in the Basatin cemetery east of Old Cairo. Modern Cairo Geniza manuscript collections include some old documents that collectors bought in Egypt in the latter half of the nineteenth century. The first European to note the collection was apparently Simon van Gelderen (a great-uncle of Heinrich Heine ), who visited the Ben Ezra synagogue and reported about the Cairo Genizah in 1752 or 1753. In 1864
1394-474: The tradition, it was compiled in 189 CE. The Tosefta closely corresponds to the Mishnah, with the same divisions for sedarim ("orders") and masekhtot ("tractates"). It is mainly written in Mishnaic Hebrew , with some Aramaic. At times, the text of the Tosefta agrees nearly verbatim with the Mishnah. In others, there are significant differences. The Tosefta often attributes laws that are anonymous in
1435-587: The traveler and scholar Jacob Saphir visited the synagogue and explored the Genizah for two days; while he did not identify any specific item of significance he suggested that possibly valuable items might be in store. In 1896, the Scottish scholars and twin sisters Agnes S. Lewis and Margaret D. Gibson returned from Egypt with fragments from the Genizah they considered to be of interest, and showed them to Solomon Schechter "their irrepressibly curious rabbinical friend" at Cambridge. Schechter, already aware of
1476-458: The west; from Aden north to Constantinople ; Europe not only is represented by the Mediterranean port cities of Narbonne , Marseilles , Genoa and Venice , but even Kiev and Rouen are occasionally mentioned. In particular the various records of payments to labourers for building maintenance and the like form by far the largest collection of records of day wages in the Islamic world for
1517-633: Was closely related to other Eastern Aramaic dialects such as Mandaic . Its original pronunciation is uncertain, and has to be reconstructed with the help of these kindred dialects and of the reading tradition of the Yemenite Jews , and where available those of the Iraqi , Syrian and Egyptian Jews . The value of the Yemenite reading tradition has been challenged by Matthew Morgenstern . (The vocalized Aramaic texts with which Jews are familiar, from
1558-508: Was considered authoritative, the Tosefta was supplementary. The Talmud often utilizes the traditions found in the Tosefta to examine the text of the Mishnah. The traditional view is that the Tosefta should be dated to a period concurrent with or shortly after the redaction of the Mishnah. This view presupposes that the Tosefta was produced to record variant material not included in the Mishnah. Modern scholarship can be roughly divided into two camps. Some, such as Jacob N. Epstein , theorize that
1599-523: Was most likely compiled in early Amoraic times from oral transmission of baraitot. Shamma Friedman has found that the Tosefta draws on relatively early Tannaitic source material and that parts of the Tosefta predate the Mishnah. Sherira ben Hanina (987 CE), in his epistle written to the heads of the Jewish community in Kairouan (now in Tunisia ), discusses the authority of the Tosefta in relation to
1640-565: Was published by Blackwell in 1958, with a second edition in 1959. Jewish bankers in Old Cairo used a double-entry bookkeeping system which predated any known usage of such a form in Italy, and whose records remain from the 11th century AD, found amongst the Cairo Geniza. The Cairo Genizah Collections at the University of Pennsylvania and at the Library of the Jewish Theological Seminary
1681-528: Was to remove the contents periodically and bury them in a cemetery. Many of these documents were written in the Aramaic language using the Hebrew alphabet . As the Jews considered Hebrew to be the language of God, and the Hebrew script to be the literal writing of God, the texts could not be destroyed even long after they had served their purpose. The Jews who wrote the materials in the Genizah were familiar with