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64-575: The Barbados Cricket Buckle is a repoussé engraving on a belt buckle of a slave playing cricket in Barbados circa 1780–1810. It is believed to be the only known image of a slave playing cricket and is thought to be the oldest surviving artifact depicting cricket outside the British Isles. "That the belt buckle depicts the slave, unmistakably in bondage, with bat in hand, suggests that the creator must have detected in their cricketing endeavours

128-633: A highly destructive hurricane in October 1780 which obliterated most palms, windmills and slave huts. The Buckle engraving predates that event. However the three stumps on the Buckle would indicate a date after 1777, when the middle stump was added to the wicket, which had previously had only two stumps. An analysis by the University of Oxford revealed the buckle to be made of " navy brass" (90% copper and 10% zinc). British sailors and soldiers were, for

192-423: A die is to work it over a design in cameo relief. Here the detail would be greater on the back of the final design, so some final chasing from the front was often carried out to sharpen the detail. The use of patterned punches dates back to the first half of the 2nd millennium BC , if not far earlier. The simplest patterned punches were produced by loops or scrolls of wire. The Gundestrup cauldron (a product of

256-507: A minimum wage for all workers, including domestic workers. In 1974, the PNP under Manley adopted a political philosophy of Democratic Socialism. In 1974, Manley proposed free education from primary school to university. The introduction of universally free secondary education was a major step in removing the institutional barriers to private sector and preferred government jobs that required secondary diplomas. The PNP government in 1974 also formed

320-557: A piece to which the technique has been applied (e.g. " repoussé work", " repoussé piece"). Chasing comes from the French word, chasser meaning to drive out, or to chase around which is what the artists are doing as they "chase" the forms on their metal in order to create their final design. The techniques of repoussé and chasing date from Antiquity and have been used widely with gold and silver for fine detailed work and with copper , tin , and bronze for larger sculptures. During

384-683: A principle stress relieving activity – one that allowed them to 'play being at home' whilst being away from home". The location of the Buckle in the River Tweed suggested that it may have been owned and originally commissioned by a member of the Hotham family whose estate was upstream, specifically William Hotham , a Royal Navy officer who had been stationed in Barbados from 1779 to 1780. The Hothams were also noted cricketers who were known as "the lucky hits of Westminster". In 1838, James Kelly noted

448-691: A proof with frosted relief. Stamps featuring the Barbados Buckle (aka International Cricket Buckle) and key cricketers were issued by the respective Postmasters General for the countries of Barbados , Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago on 6 June 1988. 101 of the 50c stamp were issued in error featuring a photograph of Edward Lawson "Barto" Bartlett instead of Herman Griffith . These errors were issued through Parcel Post Office in Bridgetown Barbados. All other postal counters had their stocks recovered before 9am on Monday 6 June 1988 and

512-477: A reform of local government taxation, an increase in youth training, an expansion of day care centres, and an upgrading of hospitals. A worker's participation programme was introduced, together with a new mental health law and the family court. Free health care for all Jamaicans was introduced, while health clinics and a paramedical system in rural areas were established. Various clinics were also set up to facilitate access to medical drugs. Spending on education

576-478: A republic by 1981. This did not occur, however. Manley developed close friendships with several communist and socialist leaders, foremost of whom were Julius Nyerere of Tanzania, Olof Palme of Sweden, and Fidel Castro of Cuba. Manley's support for Cuba sending troops to Angola during the Angolan Civil War was criticized by Henry Kissinger and others, and led to a worsening of relations between

640-490: A reputation for being formal and businesslike, the younger Manley moved easily among people of all strata and made Parliament accessible to the people by abolishing the requirement for men to wear jackets and ties to its sittings. In this regard he started a fashion revolution, often preferring the Kariba suit , a type of formal bush-jacket suit with trousers and worn without a shirt and tie. Under Manley, Jamaica established

704-467: A role for private enterprise . Manley's second term focused on liberalizing Jamaica's economy, with the pursuit of a programme that stood in marked contrast to the more social democratic economic policies pursued by Manley's first government. Various measures were, however, undertaken to cushion the negative effects of austerity and structural adjustment. A Social Support Programme was introduced to provide welfare assistance for poor Jamaicans. In addition,

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768-622: A series of public lectures at Columbia University in New York . Seaga's failure to deliver on his promises to the US and foreign investors, as well as complaints of governmental incompetence in the wake Hurricane Gilbert 's devastation in 1988, contributed to his defeat in the 1989 elections . The PNP won 45 seats to the JLP's 15. By 1989, some right-wing critics had begun to assert that Manley had softened his socialist rhetoric, explicitly advocating

832-431: A shield supported by a dolphin and a pelican. Two Pride of Barbados (Caesalpinia pulcherrima) flowers and one of the island's Bearded Fig Trees ( ficus citrifolia ) are depicted on the shield. Above the shield is a crest consisting of a raised forearm holding crossed sugar cane stalks above a helmet and mantling. A ribbon bears the inscription "pride and industry", the national motto of Barbados. The coins were finished with

896-482: A snap election – two years early – on the pretext that Dr. Paul Robertson , General Secretary of the PNP, had called for his resignation. Manley, who may have been taken by surprise by the manoeuvre, led his party in a boycott of the elections, and so the Jamaica Labour Party won all seats in parliament against only marginal opposition in six of the sixty electoral constituencies. In 1980, Manley gave

960-400: A white overseer and a black slave mother" at the wicket being bowled out. He is carrying a spliceless bat and wears a slave collar around his neck. To his left a wattle and daub slave hut can be seen and to the right a windmill processing sugarcane by a Caribbean royal palm tree . The engraving is believed to be portraiture although the identity of the slave, if intended as a specific depiction,

1024-558: Is accomplished by heating the piece to a high enough temperature to make it malleable, as in forging . In this case pitch must be dispensed with, or replaced by some material (like sand) that can withstand the heat and provide the right kind of "giving" support. The tools needed for these techniques are Other tools are usually handy, such as tweezers or tongs to hold the hot plates. The punches are usually made of steel, especially tool steel —a hard alloy that can keep its shape even after years of use—and are forged and tempered at

1088-752: Is known as the Braden Style , thought to have originated at the Cahokia Site in Collinsville, Illinois . Several copper workshops discovered during excavations of Mound 34 at Cahokia are the only known Mississippian culture copper workshops. The largest known sculpture created with this technique is the Statue of Liberty , properly Liberté éclairant le monde , ("Liberty Enlightening The World"), in Upper New York Bay . The statue

1152-634: Is made from a silver sheet and features three scenes of warriors battling, each scene with two warriors. Repoussé and chasing are commonly used in India to create objects such as water vessels. These vessels are generally made using sheets of copper or silver . Repoussage and chasing were used by many Pre-Columbian civilizations in the Americas, such as the Chavín culture of Peru (about 900 to 200 BC), to make ornaments of gold and other metals. During

1216-415: Is supported by former Jamaican Prime Minister Michael Manley in his extensive History of West Indies Cricket, writing that: "the young sons of the slaves were required to bowl at the young sons of the slave owners or to the army officers" adding "of course the sons of the slaves practised batting in their spare time". The engraving on the Barbados Buckle depicts the point when slaves moved not merely within

1280-518: Is unknown. Metallurgical analysis of the Buckle by Oxford University placed its manufacture in the "early Victorian period or before". The earliest dated reference to cricket in Barbados is 1806, however cricket had been played in "all the West Indian islands from a quite early time". Freed slaves played cricket from the mid-18th century and there are several existing reports of plantation owners encouraging slaves to play cricket. Barbados suffered

1344-671: The Antigua State College and then served in the Royal Canadian Air Force during World War II . In 1945, he enrolled at the London School of Economics . At the LSE, he was influenced by Fabian socialism and the writings of Harold Laski . He graduated in 1949, and returned to Jamaica to serve as an editor and columnist for the newspaper Public Opinion . At about the same time, he became involved in

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1408-521: The Celtic culture, made between 150 BC and 1 AD) had originally thirteen separate silver panels, with repoussé relief , lining the inside and outside of the vessel. In 1400 BC, the Egyptian Amarna period, resin and mud for repoussé backing was in use. A fine example of Egyptian repoussé is the mummy mask of Tutankhamun , a Pharaoh of the late Eighteenth Dynasty . The majority of the mask

1472-583: The Hopewell and Mississippian periods of the American Southeast and Midwest goods of repoussé copper were fashioned as ritual regalia and eventually used in prestige burials. Examples have been found with many S.E.C.C. designs such as Bi-lobed arrow motif headdresses and falcon dancer plaques. Although examples have been found in a widely scattered area ( Spiro , Oklahoma , Etowah , Georgia , and Moundville , Alabama ), most are in what

1536-503: The Jamaica Labour Party , as his People's National Party swept to a landslide victory with 37 of 53 seats. Manley instituted a series of socio-economic reforms that produced mixed results. Although he was a Jamaican from an elite family, Manley's successful trade union background helped him to maintain a close relationship with the country's poor majority, and he was a dynamic, popular leader. Unlike his father, who had

1600-712: The Royal Mint to strike a limited number of proof coins to mark the discovery of the Barbadian Buckle. The coins were minted at the Royal Mint in London. The reverse of the coin bears a representation of the Barbados Cricket Buckle. A surrounding inscription reads "International Cricket Buckle". The obverse features the Barbados' Coat of Arms . The central element of this official emblem is

1664-766: The bronze Greek armour plates from the 3rd century BC. The Warren Cup is a Roman silver cup, and the Mildenhall Treasure , the Hoxne Hoard , the Water Newton Treasure and the Berthouville Treasure are examples of hoards of Roman silver found in England and northern France with many pieces using these techniques. Another example piece using this technique is The Stag’s Head Rhyton , dating to around 400 BCE, which

1728-595: The trade union movement, becoming a negotiator for the National Workers Union . In August 1953, he became a full-time official of that union. When his father was elected premier of Jamaica in 1955, Manley resisted entering politics, not wanting to be seen as capitalizing on his family name. However, in 1962, he accepted an appointment to the Senate of the Parliament of Jamaica . He won election to

1792-510: The 3rd millennium BC, in the Middle East, a variety of semi-mass production methods were introduced to avoid repetitive free-hand work. With the simplest technique, sheet gold could be pressed into designs carved in intaglio in stone, bone, metal or even materials such as jet . The gold could be worked into the designs with wood tools or, more commonly, by hammering a wax or lead "force" over it. The alternative to pressing gold sheet into

1856-697: The Jamaica Movement for the Advancement of Literacy (JAMAL), which administered adult education programs with the goal of involving 100,000 adults a year. Land reform expanded under his administration. Historically, land tenure in Jamaica has been rather inequitable. Project Land Lease (introduced in 1973), attempted an integrated rural development approach, providing tens of thousands of small farmers with land, technical advice, inputs such as fertilizers, and access to credit. The minimum voting age

1920-675: The Jamaican House of Representatives for the Central Kingston constituency in 1967. After his father's retirement in 1969, Manley was elected leader of the People's National Party , defeating Vivian Blake . He then served as leader of the Opposition , until his party won in the general elections of 1972. In the 1972 Jamaican general election , Manley defeated the unpopular incumbent Prime Minister, Hugh Shearer of

1984-461: The New York newspaper Newsday , the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) plotted Manley's assassination, with attempts that "were supposed to have taken place" on 14 July 1976 in Jamaica, and during a visit later in the year to Toronto . Manley's response to the report was "I can confirm not a shot was fired." Elections were held on 15 December in the 1976 Jamaican general election , while

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2048-708: The US and Jamaica. In December 1977, Manley visited President Jimmy Carter at the White House to remedy the situation, and relations improved somewhat. Details of the meeting, however, were never disclosed. In a speech given at the 1979 meeting of the Non-Aligned Movement , Manley strongly pressed for the development of an alliance between the Non-Aligned movement and the Soviet Union to battle imperialism: "All anti-imperialists know that

2112-813: The Workplace (1975), The Search for Solutions, The Poverty of Nations, Up the Down Escalator, and Jamaica: Struggle in the Periphery . On 6 March 1997, Michael Manley died of prostate cancer, the same day as another Caribbean politician, Cheddi Jagan of Guyana. He was honoured with a state funeral on 16 March with religious services held at the Holy Trinity Cathedral , attended by Cuban President Fidel Castro , Trinidadian Prime Minister Basdeo Panday , and Haitian President René Préval , as well as other various leaders and delegates from

2176-504: The automatic recognition of unions in the workplace. Manley was the first Jamaican prime minister to support Jamaican republicanism (the replacement of the constitutional monarchy with a republic). In 1975, his government established a commission into constitutional reform, which recommended that Jamaica become a republic. In July 1977, after a march to commemorate the Morant Bay rebellion , Manley announced that Jamaica would become

2240-521: The balance of forces in the world shifted irrevocably in 1917 when there was a movement and a man in the October Revolution, and Lenin was the man." Despite some international opposition — especially from the US and the OAS —, Manley deepened and strengthened Jamaica's ties with Cuba, maintaining friendly relations with Fidel Castro, and paying an official visit to the country in 1975. Manley

2304-520: The boundary but to the batting crease itself. The point when they became, as C.L.R. James put it in Beyond a Boundary , "that genus Britannicus , a fine batsman". Although the Buckle batsman is depicted as being clean bowled, Seecharan highlights the Buckle slave's role as batsman; noting that his possession of bat rather than ball is subversive. The Buckle has been featured on coins, stamps and cricket trophies. The Central Bank of Barbados authorised

2368-808: The corrected 50c stamps depicting Griffith were issued on 11 July 1988. Representations of the Buckle provided the centrepiece of 3 trophies for the Cable & Wireless West Indies-England Test matches and One Day Internationals 1990: West Indies captain Desmond Haynes presented with silver gilt depiction of the Buckle. Presentation was made by Lord Sharp, chairman of Cable & Wireless at Kensington Oval Barbados. 3 April 1990. Repouss%C3%A9 Many metals can be used for chasing and repoussé work, including gold , silver , copper , and alloys such as steel , bronze , and pewter . These techniques are very ancient and have been extensively used all over

2432-519: The election year of 1980 over 800 Jamaicans were killed. In the 1980 Jamaican general election , Seaga became Prime Minister after JLP won 51 of the 60 seats. As Leader of the Opposition , Manley became an outspoken critic of the new conservative administration. He strongly opposed intervention in Grenada after Prime Minister Maurice Bishop was overthrown and executed. Immediately after committing Jamaican troops to Grenada in 1983, Seaga called

2496-521: The germ of the quest for self-expression, if not liberation." Professor Clem Seecharan , Muscular Education. The Buckle was found in 1979 in a gravel spit in the River Tweed , close to the Anglo-Scottish border , by an English holiday-maker, Clive Williams, a retired advertising consultant from London, with a metal detector . It depicts a "well-muscled mulatto , probably the offspring of

2560-440: The hammering. The plate must then be fixed on a suitable support. A commonly used technique is to place the metal over a layer of chasers pitch . The pitch is heated until it is soft enough to make good contact with the metal, filling all its nooks and crannies, and then allowed to cool. At room temperature, the pitch must be hard enough to adhere to the metal and hold it in place, but still soft and plastic enough to "give" as

2624-425: The importance of the Barbados Cricket Buckle recognising that its depiction on a Barbados postage stamp on the 60th anniversary of West Indies cricket was appropriate given cricket's role as a "political instrument" from slavery through emancipation to independence. Although references to slavery and cricket are extremely rare they do exist. In reference to a diary entry by Jamaican slave owner Thistlewood that cricket

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2688-696: The mask on the mummy of Tutankhamun , the body armours of the Bronze Age , the copper ornaments made by the Native Americans in the Southeastern United States , and the Statue of Liberty in New York City. The word repoussé is French and means "pushed up", ultimately from Latin pulsare , which means "to push". Repoussage is the noun to refer to the technique, with repoussé being an adjective referring to

2752-405: The metal is hammered into it. The pitch is often cast as a thick layer over some softer backing material that can absorb larger deformations. The metal plate will have to be released from the pitch several times, for turning it over and/or for re-annealing. Pitch residues stuck to the plate must be removed with an appropriate solvent . Once the plate is firmly held by the pitch, front side up,

2816-497: The most part, responsible for exporting cricket out of Great Britain and around Britain's colonial empire . According to Bowen, "Recreation had to be found for troops and sailors; cricket was an ideal source of it." As noted by historian Hilary Beckles , the first references to cricket matches played in Barbados (as reported on by the Barbadian press) reported that they were done so by soldiers and sailors who "played at cricket as

2880-421: The outline of the desired design is lightly chased ("lined") on it by a special tool (a "liner"), that creates narrow raised lines on the other side. The metal is turned over, and firmed again over the pitch, with the back side up. The main repoussé work is then performed, using a variety of punches. Once the main repoussé is done, the piece is again released by heating. The cavities on the back side, created by

2944-538: The parties from as early as the beginning of the two-party system in the 1940s, political violence reached unprecedented levels in the 1970s. Indeed, the two elections accompanied by the greatest violence were those (1976 and 1980) in which Seaga was trying to unseat Manley. In response to a wave of killings in 1974, Manley oversaw the passage of the Gun Court Act and the Suppression of Crime Act, giving

3008-483: The police and the army new powers to seal off and disarm high-violence neighborhoods. The Gun Court imposed a mandatory sentence of indefinite imprisonment with hard labour for all firearms offences, and ordinarily tried cases in camera , without a jury. Manley declared that "There is no place in this society for the gun, now or ever." Violence flared in January 1976 in anticipation of elections. A state of emergency

3072-827: The programme focused on creating direct employment, training, and credit for much of the population. The government also announced a 50% increase in the amount of nutritional assistance for the most vulnerable groups (including pregnant women, nursing mothers, and children). A small number of community councils were also created. In addition, a limited land reform programme was carried out that leased and sold land to small farmers, and land plots were granted to hundreds of farmers. The government had an admirable record in housing provision, while measures were also taken to protect consumers from illegal and unfair business practices. In 1992, citing health reasons, Manley stepped down as Prime Minister and PNP leader. His former Deputy Prime Minister , P. J. Patterson , assumed both offices. Manley

3136-445: The repoussé work, are filled with melted pitch. Once that filling has hardened, the plate is again turned over and placed on top of a layer of softened pitch. Once the pitch has hardened, the design is then refined by chasing. These procedures can be repeated several times, alternating between repoussé and chasing. Repoussé and chasing can also be done on materials, like steel , that are too hard to be cold-formed by hammering. That

3200-637: The significance of friendly "mutual confidence and familiarity" between British sailors and Afro-Caribbean slaves, so much so that "In the presence of the sailor the Negro feels a man". There has been much debate about the origins of cricket in the West Indies and the role that cricket (a game exported with a "made in England" hallmark) has played in subjugation and emancipation. In his book 40 Million Dollar Slaves, William C. Rhoden recognised that: "In play

3264-421: The slave could become master; the powerless could become powerful. Athletic competition or a mere athletic feat ... cutting cane ....was a free space where bodies bound and scarred by chains could soar". Although focused on US slaves, Rhoden's comments are apposite for the experience of slaves in all nations. In the first chapter of his book "Muscular Learning", Professor Clem Seecharan reflects at some length on

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3328-454: The state of emergency was still in effect. The PNP was returned to office, winning 47 seats to the JLP's 13. The turnout was a very high 85 percent. The state of emergency continued into the next year. Extraordinary powers granted the police by the Suppression of Crime Act of 1974 continued to the end of the 1990s. Violence continued to blight political life in the 1970s. Gangs armed by both parties fought for control of urban constituencies. In

3392-469: The tip. They usually have a beveled rear end, to better handle the hammer blows. They can be purchased and used as such, modified by the user to suit the needs of a specific work, or made by the user from bar stock. To make or reform the punches, one needs a saw or other cutting device, as well as a grinder and abrasives to shape and polish the tip. Michael Manley Michael Norman Manley ON OM OCC PC (10 December 1924 – 6 March 1997)

3456-409: The world, as they require only the simplest tools and materials, and yet allow great diversity of expression. They are also relatively economical, since there is no loss or waste of metal, which mostly retains its original size and thickness. Toolmarks are often intentionally left visible in the result. A few among many famous examples of repoussé and chasing are the prehistoric Gundestrup cauldron ,

3520-470: Was Prime Minister when Jamaica experienced a significant escalation of its political culture of violence. Supporters of his opponent Edward Seaga and the Jamaica Labour Party (JLP) and Manley's People's National Party (PNP) engaged in a bloody struggle which began before the 1976 election and ended when Seaga was installed as Prime Minister in 1980. While the violent political culture was not invented by Seaga or Manley, and had its roots in conflicts between

3584-441: Was a Jamaican politician who served as the fourth prime minister of Jamaica from 1972 to 1980 and from 1989 to 1992. Manley championed a democratic socialist program, and has been described as a populist . He remains one of Jamaica's most popular prime ministers. Michael Manley was the second son of premier Norman Washington Manley and artist Edna Manley . He studied at Jamaica College between 1935 and 1943. He attended

3648-582: Was declared by Manley's party the PNP in June and 500 people, including some prominent members of the JLP, were accused of trying to overthrow the government and were detained, without charges, in the South Camp Prison at the Up-Park Camp military headquarters. During the emergency, according to a report published on 2 November 1977, by investigative reporters Ernest Volkman and John Cummings of

3712-482: Was formed by copper repoussé in sections using wooden structures to shape each piece during the hammering process. The process of chasing and repoussé requires a number of steps. The metal plate should usually be annealed —that is, heated for some time at a temperature sufficient to reduce its internal stresses —to make it as malleable as possible. This process may have to be repeated several times, as many metals harden and become brittle as they are deformed by

3776-516: Was formed using the technique of repoussé from what appears to be a single sheet of gold. The lapis lazuli and other stones were inlaid in chased areas after the height of the form was completed. The ceremonial beard, Nekhbet vulture, and Uraeus were attached separately. By Hellenistic times, combined punches and dies were in use. In 400 BC, the Greeks were using beeswax for filler in repoussé. Classical pieces using repoussage and chasing include

3840-906: Was lowered to 18 years, while equal pay for women was introduced. Maternity leave was also introduced, while the government outlawed the stigma of illegitimacy. The Masters and Servants Act was abolished, and a Labour Relations and Industrial Disputes Act provided workers and their trade unions with enhanced rights. The National Housing Trust was established, providing "the means for most employed people to own their own homes," and greatly stimulated housing construction, with more than 40,000 houses built between 1974 and 1980. Subsidised meals, transportation and uniforms for schoolchildren from disadvantaged backgrounds were introduced, together with free education at primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. Special employment programmes were also launched, together with programmes designed to combat illiteracy. Increases in pensions and poor relief were carried out, along with

3904-479: Was married five times. In 1946, he married Jacqueline Kamellard, but the marriage was dissolved in 1951. In 1955, he married Thelma Verity, the adopted daughter of Sir Philip Sherlock , OM and his wife Grace Verity; in 1960, this marriage was also dissolved. In 1966, Manley married Barbara Lewars (died in 1968); in 1972, he married Beverley Anderson , but the marriage was dissolved in 1990. Beverley wrote The Manley Memoirs in June 2008. Michael Manley's final marriage

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3968-490: Was played in June 1778, Professor R Burton was prompted to wonder if the slaves tasked to retrieve the ball when it went beyond the boundary were becoming drawn into the game. This was echoed by Seecharan who notes that in Barbados, cricket was played in clearings in cane fields and slaves were tasked with retrieving the ball and throwing it back into play and points out that "there are accounts of planters too encouraging slaves to play cricket". This encounter of slaves with cricket

4032-517: Was significantly increased, while the number of doctors and dentists in the country rose. Project Lend Lease, an agricultural programme designed to provide rural labourers and smallholders with more land through tenancy, was introduced, together with a National Youth Service Programme for high school graduates to teach in schools, vocational training, and the literacy programme, comprehensive rent and price controls, protection for workers against unfair dismissal, subsidies (in 1973) on basic food items, and

4096-412: Was to Glynne Ewart in 1992. Manley had five children from his five marriages: Rachel Manley , Joseph Manley, Sarah Manley, Natasha Manley, and David Manley. Manley wrote seven books, including the award-winning A History of West Indies Cricket , in which he discussed the links between cricket and West Indian nationalism . The other books he wrote include The Politics of Change (1974), A Voice in

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