The Badgujar (also spelt Bargujar and Badgurjar ) is a clan of Rajputs . They are also a distinct caste in Maharashtra .
110-575: Similar to other Rajput clans, the Badgujars also claim descent from the ancient Suryavanshi king Rama . The Bargujars ruled over Rajorgarh, Dausa , Deoti and Ghasira, Macheri. They were expelled from Dausa, Rajorgarh and Deoti by Kachhwaha Rajputs when they migrated to Dhundhar, in 11th century Dulha Rai , won the areas of Dausa and Deoti from the Badgujar Rajputs, who were reduced to feudatory or jagirdars. In 18th century Surajmal with
220-575: A bana (arrow) in his right hand, while he holds the dhanus (bow) in his left. The most recommended icon for him is that he be shown standing in tribhanga pose (thrice bent "S" shape). He is shown black, blue or dark color, typically wearing reddish color clothes. Rama is often accompanied with his brother Lakshmana on his left side while his consort Sita always on his right, both of golden-yellow complexion. His monkey companion Hanuman stands nearby with folded arms. The group can be accompanied with Rama's brothers Bharata and Shatrughna too. Who
330-403: A "thinking hearts" approach. Second, he emphasises through what he says and what he does a union of "self-consciousness and action" to create an "ethics of character". Third, Rama's life combines the ethics with the aesthetics of living. The story of Rama and people in his life raises questions such as "is it appropriate to use evil to respond to evil?", and then provides a spectrum of views within
440-489: A Jain householder is the voluntary ritual practice of "assuming temporary ascetic status". There are many rituals in Jainism's various sects. According to Dundas, the ritualistic lay path among Śvētāmbara Jains is "heavily imbued with ascetic values", where the rituals either revere or celebrate the ascetic life of tirthankaras, or progressively approach the psychological and physical life of an ascetic. The ultimate ritual
550-567: A Jain mendicant for the period. Śvētāmbara Jains do similarly in the eight day paryusana with samvatsari-pratikramana . The practice is believed to remove karma from one's soul and provides merit ( punya ). A "one day" fast lasts about 36 hours, starting at sunset before the day of the fast and ending 48 minutes after sunrise the day after. Among laypeople, fasting is more commonly observed by women, as it shows their piety and religious purity, gains merit earning and helps ensure future well-being for their family. Some religious fasts are observed in
660-424: A body are called Siddhas (liberated souls). Only a soul with human body can attain enlightenment and liberation. The liberated beings are the supreme beings and are worshipped by all heavenly, earthly and hellish beings who aspire to attain liberation themselves. Purification of soul and liberation can be achieved through the path of three jewels: Samyak Darśana (Correct View), meaning faith, acceptance of
770-468: A charming countenance, and coppery eyes; he has his clavicle concealed and is known by the people as Rama. He has a voice (deep) like the sound of a kettledrum and glossy skin, is full of glory, square-built, and of well-proportioned limbs and is endowed with a dark-brown complexion. Rama's life story is imbued with symbolism . According to Sheldon Pollock , the life of Rama as told in the Indian texts
880-520: A charming, well built person of a dark complexion ( varṇam śyāmam ) and long arms ( ājānabāhu , meaning a person whose middle finger reaches beyond their knee). In the Sundara Kanda section of the epic, Hanuman describes Rama to Sita when she is held captive in Lanka , to prove to her that he is indeed a messenger from Rama. He says: He has broad shoulders, mighty arms, a conch-shaped neck,
990-411: A duty to rescue all creatures", but resulting from "continual self-discipline", a cleansing of the soul that leads to one's own spiritual development which ultimately affects one's salvation and release from rebirths. Jains believe that causing injury to any being in any form creates bad karma which affects one's rebirth, future well-being and causes suffering. Late medieval Jain scholars re-examined
1100-507: A fruit. But every time she gave it to him she first tasted it to ensure that it was sweet and tasty as a testament to her devotion. Rama also understood her devotion and ate all the half-eaten bers given by her. Such was the reciprocation of love and compassion he had for his people. This place is believed in the Hindu tradition to be the same as Chitrakoot on the border of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. The region has numerous Rama temples and
1210-482: A just and fair rule. It is believed by many that when Rama returned people celebrated their happiness with diyas (lamps), and the festival of Diwali is connected with Rama's return. Upon Rama's accession as king, rumours emerge that Sita may have gone willingly when she was with Ravana; Sita protests that her capture was forced. Rama responds to public gossip by renouncing his wife and asking her to prove her chastity in front of Agni (fire). She does and passes
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#17327811546061320-437: A person, Rama personifies the characteristics of an ideal person ( purushottama ). He had within him all the desirable virtues that any individual would seek to aspire, and he fulfils all his moral obligations. Rama is considered a maryada purushottama or the best of upholders of Dharma. According to Rodrick Hindery, Book 2, 6 and 7 are notable for ethical studies. The views of Rama combine "reason with emotions" to create
1430-471: A predominantly lacto-vegetarian lifestyle. Parasparopagraho jīvānām (the function of souls is to help one another) is the faith's motto, and the Namokar Mantra is its most common and strongest prayer. Jainism is one of the oldest religions still practiced today. It has two major ancient sub-traditions, Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras , which hold different views on ascetic practices, gender, and
1540-528: A social and supportive female group. Long fasts are celebrated by friends and families with special ceremonies. Jainism considers meditation ( dhyana ) a necessary practice, but its goals are very different from those in Buddhism and Hinduism. In Jainism, meditation is concerned more with stopping karmic attachments and activity, not as a means to transformational insights or self-realization in other Indian religions. According to Padmanabh Jaini , Sāmāyika
1650-411: A stricter vow by eating only once a day. Jains fast particularly during festivals. This practice is called upavasa , tapasya or vrata , and may be practiced according to one's ability. Digambaras fast for Dasa-laksana-parvan , eating only one or two meals per day, drinking only boiled water for ten days, or fasting completely on the first and last days of the festival, mimicking the practices of
1760-665: A universal religious tolerance", and a teaching of "plurality" and "benign attitude to other [ethical, religious] positions". Dundas states this is a misreading of historical texts and Mahāvīra's teachings. According to him, the "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings of the Mahāvīra is about the nature of absolute reality and human existence. He claims that it is not about condoning activities such as killing animals for food, nor violence against disbelievers or any other living being as "perhaps right". The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there
1870-400: Is anekāntavāda , from anekānta ("many-sidedness," etymologically " non -oneness" or "not being one") and vada ("doctrine"). The doctrine states that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects. It further states that reality can be experienced, but cannot be fully expressed with language. It suggests that human attempts to communicate are Naya , "partial expression of
1980-440: Is sallekhana , a religious death through ascetic abandonment of food and drinks. The Digambara Jains follow the same theme, but the life cycle and religious rituals are closer to a Hindu liturgy. The overlap is mainly in the life cycle (rites-of-passage) rituals, and likely developed because Jain and Hindu societies overlapped, and rituals were viewed as necessary and secular. Jains ritually worship numerous deities, especially
2090-568: Is "charming, beautiful, lovely" or "darkness, night". The Vishnu avatar named Rama is also known by other names. He is called Ramachandra (beautiful, lovely moon), or Dasarathi (son of Dasaratha), or Raghava (descendant of Raghu, solar dynasty in Hindu cosmology). He is also known as Ram Lalla (Infant form of Rama) . Additional names of Rama include Ramavijaya ( Javanese ), Phreah Ream ( Khmer ), Phra Ram ( Lao and Thai ), Megat Seri Rama ( Malay ), Raja Bantugan ( Maranao ), Ramar or Raman ( Tamil ), and Ramudu ( Telugu ). In
2200-544: Is Rama I Think of that Rama Who lives in Ayodhya Who is decorated with gems Who sits beneath a golden canopy Whose doorways are festooned with mandana flowers. He, who is seated on a throne Surrounded by celestial vehicles Who is revered by rishis Who has Sita on the left Who is served by Lakshmana ; Who is the blue complexioned, Whose face is tranquil, Who is adorned with ornaments — Rama Rahasya Upanishad . The Ramayana describes Rama as
2310-1022: Is a "religious death" ritual observed at the end of life, historically by Jain monks and nuns, but rare in the modern age. In this vow, there is voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid intake to end one's life by choice and with dispassion, This is believed to reduce negative karma that affects a soul's future rebirths. Of the major Indian religions, Jainism has had the strongest ascetic tradition. Ascetic life may include nakedness, symbolizing non-possession even of clothes, fasting, body mortification, and penance, to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed essential for reaching siddha and moksha ("liberation from rebirths" and "salvation"). Jain texts like Tattvartha Sūtra and Uttaradhyayana Sūtra discuss austerities in detail. Six outer and six inner practices are oft-repeated in later Jain texts. Outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying
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#17327811546062420-985: Is a fundamental tenet of Jainism. It holds that one must abandon all violent activity and that without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless. In Jain theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill or harm any being, and non-violence is the highest religious duty. Jain texts such as Ācārāṅga Sūtra and Tattvarthasūtra state that one must renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or immovable. Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being, nor cause another to kill, nor consent to any killing directly or indirectly. Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought. It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone, "all living creatures must help each other". Jains believe that violence negatively affects and destroys one's soul, particularly when
2530-548: Is a major deity in Hinduism . He is worshipped as the seventh and one of the most popular avatars of Vishnu . In Rama-centric Hindu traditions, he is considered the Supreme Being. Also considered as the ideal man ( maryāda puruṣottama ), Rama is the male protagonist of the Hindu epic Ramayana . His birth is celebrated every year on Rama Navami , which falls on the ninth day of the bright half ( Shukla Paksha ) of
2640-513: Is a masterpiece that offers a framework to represent, conceptualise and comprehend the world and the nature of life. Like major epics and religious stories around the world, it has been of vital relevance because it "tells the culture what it is". Rama's life is more complex than the Western template for the battle between the good and the evil, where there is a clear distinction between immortal powerful gods or heroes and mortal struggling humans. In
2750-478: Is a practice of "brief periods in meditation" in Jainism that is a part of siksavrata (ritual restraint). The goal of Sāmāyika is to achieve equanimity, and it is the second siksavrata . The samayika ritual is practiced at least three times a day by mendicants, while a layperson includes it with other ritual practices such as Puja in a Jain temple and doing charity work. According to Johnson, as well as Jaini, samayika connotes more than meditation, and for
2860-421: Is a sin in Jainism, with negative karmic effects. Jainism states that souls begin in a primordial state, and either evolve to a higher state or regress if driven by their karma. It further clarifies that abhavya (incapable) souls can never attain moksha (liberation). It explains that the abhavya state is entered after an intentional and shockingly evil act. Souls can be good or evil in Jainism, unlike
2970-570: Is a wandering mendicant in the Digambara tradition, or a resident mendicant in the Śvētāmbara tradition. For Jain laypersons, it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly earned, and giving excess property to charity. According to Natubhai Shah, aparigraha applies to both the material and the psychic. Material possessions refer to various forms of property. Psychic possessions refer to emotions, likes and dislikes, and attachments of any form. Unchecked attachment to possessions
3080-518: Is accepted as a truth, as in Hinduism but not Buddhism. The cycle of rebirths has a definite beginning and end in Jainism. Jain theosophy asserts that each soul passes through 8,400,000 birth-situations as they circle through Saṃsāra , going through five types of bodies: earth bodies, water bodies, fire bodies, air bodies and vegetable lives, constantly changing with all human and non-human activities from rainfall to breathing. Harming any life form
3190-450: Is an Indian religion . Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankara s (supreme preachers of Dharma ), with the first in the current time cycle being Rishabhadeva , whom the tradition holds to have lived millions of years ago, the twenty-third tirthankara Parshvanatha , whom historians date to the 9th century BCE , and the twenty-fourth tirthankara Mahavira , around 600 BCE. Jainism
3300-404: Is an important Vaishnava pilgrimage site. The texts describe nearby hermitages of Vedic rishis (sages) such as Atri , and that Rama roamed through forests, lived a humble simple life, provided protection and relief to ascetics in the forest being harassed and persecuted by demons, as they stayed at different ashrams . After ten years of wandering and struggles, Rama arrives at Panchavati, on
3410-543: Is called devapuja , and is found in all Jain sub-traditions. Typically, the Jain layperson enters the Derasar (Jain temple) inner sanctum in simple clothing and bare feet with a plate filled with offerings, bows down, says the namaskar , completes his or her litany and prayers, sometimes is assisted by the temple priest, leaves the offerings and then departs. Jain practices include performing abhisheka (ceremonial bath) of
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3520-411: Is considered an eternal dharma with the tirthankaras guiding every time cycle of the cosmology . Central to understanding Jain philosophy is the concept of bhedvigyān , or the clear distinction in the nature of the soul and non-soul entities. This principle underscores the innate purity and potential for liberation within every soul , distinct from the physical and mental elements that bind it to
3630-426: Is considered as "faith in the tattvas ". The spiritual goal in Jainism is to reach moksha for ascetics, but for most Jain laypersons, it is to accumulate good karma that leads to better rebirth and a step closer to liberation. Jain philosophy accepts three reliable means of knowledge ( pramana ). It holds that correct knowledge is based on perception ( pratyaksa ), inference ( anumana ) and testimony ( sabda or
3740-446: Is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare. Jain monks, nuns and some followers avoid root vegetables such as potatoes, onions, and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a higher living being. Jain monks and advanced lay people avoid eating after sunset, observing a vow of ratri-bhojana-tyaga-vrata . Monks observe
3850-417: Is faced with the question of appropriate ethical response. In the Indian tradition, states Richman, the social value is that "a warrior must never harm a woman". The details of the response by Rama and Lakshmana, and justifications for it, has numerous versions. Similarly, there are numerous and very different versions to how Rama deals with rumours against Sita when they return victorious to Ayodhya, given that
3960-481: Is no "perhaps" about them. Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas, but Jainism disagreed, in specific areas, with the knowledge systems and beliefs of these traditions, and vice versa. The third main principle in Jainism is aparigraha which means non-attachment to worldly possessions. For monks and nuns, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property, relations and emotions. The ascetic
4070-448: Is not" to metaphysical questions. The Mahāvīra, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both "it is", and "it is not", qualified with "perhaps", to understand Absolute Reality. The permanent being is conceptualized as jiva (soul) and ajiva (matter) within a dualistic anekāntavāda framework. According to Paul Dundas , in contemporary times the anekāntavāda doctrine has been interpreted by some Jains as intending to "promote
4180-458: Is observed by Jains as the anniversary of Mahāvīra's attainment of moksha . The Hindu festival of Diwali is also celebrated on the same date ( Kartika Amavasya ). Jain temples, homes, offices, and shops are decorated with lights and diyas (small oil lamps). The lights are symbolic of knowledge or removal of ignorance. Sweets are often distributed. On Diwali morning, Nirvan Ladoo is offered after praying to Mahāvīra in all Jain temples across
4290-456: Is related to the term ratri , which means night. In another context in other Vedic texts, the word means "pleasing, delightful, charming, beautiful, lovely". The word is sometimes used as a suffix in different Indian languages and religions, such as Pali in Buddhist texts, where -rama adds the sense of "pleasing to the mind, lovely" to the composite word. Rama as a first name appears in
4400-429: Is said to result in direct harm to one's personality. Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These are called anuvratas (small vows) for Jain laypersons, and mahavratas (great vows) for Jain mendicants. For both, its moral precepts preface that the Jain has access to a guru (teacher, counsellor), deva (Jina, god), doctrine, and that the individual is free from five offences: doubts about
4510-401: Is the kidnapping of Sita by the demon-king Ravana , followed by Rama and Lakshmana's journey to rescue her. The entire life story of Rama, Sita and their companions allegorically discusses duties, rights and social responsibilities of an individual. It illustrates dharma and dharmic living through model characters. Rama is especially important to Vaishnavism . He is the central figure of
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4620-645: Is treated as absolute. The doctrine is ancient, found in Buddhist texts such as the Samaññaphala Sutta . The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahāvīra's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" ( syāt ). These texts identify anekāntavāda as a key difference from the Buddha 's teachings. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting extremes of the answer "it is" or "it
4730-695: The Balakanda section of the Ramayana . These were Lakshmana , Bharata and Shatrughna . The extant manuscripts of the text describes their education and training as young princes, but this is brief. Rama is portrayed as a polite, self-controlled, virtuous youth always ready to help others. His education included the Vedas , the Vedangas as well as the martial arts. The years when Rama grew up are described in much greater detail by later Hindu texts, such as
4840-531: The Jinas . In Jainism a Jina as deva is not an avatar (incarnation), but the highest state of omniscience that an ascetic tirthankara achieved. Out of the 24 tirthankaras, Jains predominantly worship four: Mahāvīra, Parshvanatha , Neminatha and Rishabhanatha . Among the non- tirthankara saints, devotional worship is common for Bahubali among the Digambaras. The Panch Kalyanaka rituals remember
4950-454: The Pinaka , the bow of the deity Shiva . Many princes attempted and failed to string the bow. During this time, Vishvamitra had brought Rama and his brother Lakshmana to the forest for the protection of a yajna (ritual sacrifice). Hearing about the svayamvara , Vishvamitra asked Rama to participate in the ceremony with the consent of Janaka, who agreed to offer Sita's hand in marriage to
5060-571: The Ramcharitmanas – a popular treatise that inspires thousands of Ramlila festival performances during autumn every year in India. Rama legends are also found in the texts of Jainism and Buddhism , though he is sometimes called Pauma or Padma in these texts, and their details vary significantly from the Hindu versions. Jain Texts also mentioned Rama as the eighth balabhadra among
5170-452: The Vishnu sahasranama , Rama is the 394th name of Vishnu . In some Advaita Vedanta inspired texts, Rama connotes the metaphysical concept of Supreme Brahman who is the eternally blissful spiritual Self (Atman, soul) in whom yogis delight nondualistically. The root of the word Rama is ram- which means "stop, stand still, rest, rejoice, be pleased". According to Douglas Q. Adams ,
5280-611: The Ahiṃsā doctrine when faced with external threat or violence. For example, they justified violence by monks to protect nuns. According to Dundas , the Jain scholar Jinadattasuri wrote during a time of destruction of temples and persecution that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance". However, examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances are relatively rare. The second main principle of Jainism
5390-456: The Ramavali by Tulsidas . The template is similar to those found for Krishna , but in the poems of Tulsidas , Rama is milder and reserved introvert, rather than the prank-playing extrovert personality of Krishna. In the kingdom of Mithilā, Janaka conducted a svayamvara ceremony at his capital with the condition that she would marry only a prince who would possess the strength to string
5500-652: The Ramayana , such as the Paumacariya (literally deeds of Padma) by Vimalasuri, also mention the details of the early life of Rama. The Jain texts are dated variously, but generally pre-500 CE, most likely sometime within the first five centuries of the common era. Moriz Winternitz states that the Valmiki Ramayana was already famous before it was recast in the Jain Paumacariya poem, dated to
5610-691: The Rishi-mandala including the tirthankaras . The Jain tantric traditions use mantra and rituals that are believed to accrue merit for rebirth realms. The most important annual Jain festival is called the Paryushana by Svetambaras and Dasa lakshana parva by the Digambaras. It is celebrated from the 12th day of the waning moon in the traditional lunisolar month of Bhadrapada in the Indian calendar . This typically falls in August or September of
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#17327811546065720-414: The ajiva (non-living). Jains distinguish a substance from a complex body, or thing, by declaring the former a simple indestructible element, while the latter is a compound made of one or more substances that can be destroyed. Tattva connotes reality or truth in Jain philosophy and is the framework for salvation. According to Digambara Jains, there are seven tattvas : the sentient ( jiva or living),
5830-458: The nondualism of some forms of Hinduism and Buddhism. According to Jainism, a Siddha (liberated soul) has gone beyond Saṃsāra , is at the apex, is omniscient, and remains there eternally. Jain texts propound that the universe consists of many eternal lokas (realms of existence). As in Buddhism and Hinduism, both time and the universe are eternal, but the universe is transient. The universe, body, matter and time are considered separate from
5940-481: The "real" version, rather all the versions of Rama story are real and true in their own meanings to the local cultural tradition, according to scholars such as Richman and Ramanujan. The stories vary in details, particularly where the moral question is clear, but the appropriate ethical response is unclear or disputed. For example, when demoness Shurpanakha disguises as a woman to seduce Rama, then stalks and harasses Rama's wife Sita after Rama refuses her, Lakshmana
6050-473: The 1st millennium BCE. In Brockington's view, "based on the language, style and content of the work, a date of roughly the fifth century BCE is the most reasonable estimate". Historians often highlight that Rama's narrative reflects not only religious beliefs but also societal ideals and moral principles. They explore the possibility of Rama being a composite figure, embodying virtues and qualities valued in ancient Indian society . This perspective underscores
6160-534: The 2011 census. Outside India, some of the largest Jain communities can be found in Canada , Europe , and the United States . Japan is also home to a fast-growing community of converts. Major festivals include Paryushana and Das Lakshana , Ashtanika , Mahavir Janma Kalyanak , Akshaya Tritiya , and Dipawali . Jainism is transtheistic and forecasts that the universe evolves without violating
6270-681: The 63 salakapurusas . In Sikhism , Rama is mentioned as one of twenty-four divine avatars of Vishnu in the Chaubis Avtar in Dasam Granth . Rama is also known as Ram, Raman, Ramar, and Ramachandra ( / ˌ r ɑː m ə ˈ tʃ ə n d r ə / ; IAST : Rāmacandra , Sanskrit : रामचन्द्र ). Rāma is a Vedic Sanskrit word with two contextual meanings. In one context, as found in Atharva Veda , as stated by Monier Monier-Williams , it means "dark, dark-colored, black" and
6380-580: The Earth (due to powers he had from Brahma's boon to him), Vishnu himself appeared and said he will incarnate as Rama (human) and kill Ravana (since Brahma 's boon made him invincible from all, including God, except humans). Śrī Rāma Jaya Rāma Jaya Jaya Rāma ( Sanskrit : श्री राम जय राम जय जय राम ) — Chant of Mahatma Gandhi containing thirteen syllables. It is known as Śrī Rāma Tāraka mantra ( lit. ' The Rama mantra for Salvation ' ). Rama had three brothers, according to
6490-522: The Gregorian calendar. It lasts eight days for Svetambaras, and ten days among the Digambaras. It is a time when lay people fast and pray. The five vows are emphasized during this time. Svetambaras recite the Kalpasūtras , while Digambaras read their own texts. The festival is an occasion where Jains make active effort to stop cruelty towards other life forms, freeing animals in captivity and preventing
6600-514: The Indian traditions, particularly Rama, the story is about a divine human, a mortal god, incorporating both into the exemplar who transcends both humans and gods. Responding to evil A superior being does not render evil for evil, this is the maxim one should observe; the ornament of virtuous persons is their conduct. (...) A noble soul will ever exercise compassion even towards those who enjoy injuring others. — Ramayana 6.115 , Valmiki (Abridged, Translator: Roderick Hindery) As
6710-478: The Jain text Tattvartha sūtra , the first two are indirect knowledge and the remaining three are direct knowledge. According to Jainism, the existence of "a bound and ever changing soul" is a self-evident truth, an axiom which does not need to be proven. It maintains that there are numerous souls, but every one of them has three qualities ( Guṇa ): consciousness ( chaitanya , the most important), bliss ( sukha ) and vibrational energy ( virya ). It further claims
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#17327811546066820-463: The Mahāvīra (Vardhamana) set an example by performing severe austerities for twelve years. Monastic organization, sangh , has a four-fold order consisting of sadhu (male ascetics, muni ), sadhvi (female ascetics, aryika ), śrāvaka (laymen), and śrāvikā (laywomen). The latter two support the ascetics and their monastic organizations called gacch or samuday , in autonomous regional Jain congregations. Jain monastic rules have encouraged
6930-495: The Ramayana to have taken place as early as 1,500 BCE. The composition of Rama's epic story, the Ramayana , in its current form is usually dated between 8th and 4th century BCE. According to John Brockington, a professor of Sanskrit at Oxford known for his publications on the Ramayana , the original text was likely composed and transmitted orally in more ancient times, and modern scholars have suggested various centuries in
7040-515: The Ramayana's role as both a religious scripture and a cultural artifact, illustrating how legends like Rama's have shaped India's collective consciousness and ethical frameworks over centuries. Ariel Glucklich about this, quoted: "[...] Rama serve not only as historical narratives but also as moral and spiritual teachings, shaping cultural identity and religious beliefs in profound ways." Rama iconography shares elements of avatars of Vishnu, but has several distinctive elements. He has two hands, holds
7150-565: The Sanskrit word Rama is also found in other Indo-European languages such as Tocharian ram , reme , *romo- where it means "support, make still", "witness, make evident". The sense of "dark, black, soot" also appears in other Indo European languages, such as *remos or Old English romig . This summary is a traditional legendary account, based on literary details from the Ramayana and other historic mythology-containing texts of Buddhism and Jainism . According to Sheldon Pollock ,
7260-750: The Vedic literature, associated with two patronymic names – Margaveya and Aupatasvini – representing different individuals. A third individual named Rama Jamadagnya is the purported author of hymn 10.110 of the Rigveda in the Hindu tradition. The word Rama appears in ancient literature in reverential terms for three individuals: The name Rama appears repeatedly in Hindu texts, for many different scholars and kings in mythical stories. The word also appears in ancient Upanishads and Aranyakas layer of Vedic literature, as well as music and other post-Vedic literature, but in qualifying context of something or someone who
7370-525: The ancient Hindu epic Ramayana , a text historically popular in the South Asian and Southeast Asian cultures. His ancient legends have attracted bhashya (commentaries) and extensive secondary literature and inspired performance arts. Two such texts, for example, are the Adhyatma Ramayana – a spiritual and theological treatise considered foundational by Ramanandi monasteries, and
7480-444: The banks of river Godavari. This region had numerous demons ( rakshashas ). One day, a demoness called Shurpanakha saw Rama, became enamored of him, and tried to seduce him. Rama refused her. Shurpanakha retaliated by threatening Sita . Lakshmana, the younger brother protective of his family, in turn retaliated by cutting off the nose and ears of Shurpanakha . The cycle of violence escalated, ultimately reaching demon king Ravana , who
7590-456: The body of a heavenly celestial do so because of their positive karma. It is further stated that they possess a more transcendent knowledge about material things and can anticipate events in the human realms. However, once their past karmic merit is exhausted, it is explained that their souls are reborn again as humans, animals or other beings. The perfect enlightened souls with a body are called Arihants (victors) and perfect souls without
7700-486: The condition that he was able to string the bow of Vishnu, Sharanga . When Rama obliged him with success, Parashurama acknowledged the former to be a form of Vishnu and departed to perform penance at the mountain Mahendra. The wedding entourage then reached Ayodhya, entering the city amid great fanfare. Thereafter, Rama lived happily with Sita for twelve (12) years. Meanwhile Rama and his brothers were away, Kaikeyi ,
7810-634: The cycle of birth and rebirth . Recognizing and internalizing this separation is essential for spiritual progress and the attainment of samyak darshan or self realization , which marks the beginning of the aspirant's journey towards liberation . The three main pillars of Jainism are ahiṃsā (non-violence), anekāntavāda (non-absolutism), and aparigraha (asceticism). Jain monks take five main vows: ahiṃsā (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (not stealing), brahmacharya (chastity), and aparigraha (non-possessiveness). These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to
7920-413: The faith, indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, insincerity of desire for Jain teachings, non-recognition of fellow Jains, and insufficient admiration of fellow Jains' spiritual endeavors. Such a person undertakes the following Five vows of Jainism: Jainism prescribes seven supplementary vows, including three guņa vratas (merit vows) and four śikşā vratas . The Sallekhana (or Santhara ) vow
8030-559: The figure of Rama incorporates more ancient "morphemes of Indian myths", such as the mythical legends of Bali and Namuci . The ancient sage Valmiki used these morphemes in his Ramayana similes as in sections 3.27, 3.59, 3.73, 5.19 and 29.28. The ancient epic Ramayana states in the Balakanda that Rama and his brothers were born to Kaushalya and Dasharatha in Ayodhya , a city on the banks of Sarayu River . The Jain versions of
8140-452: The first eon the universe generates, and in the next it degenerates. Thus, it divides the worldly cycle of time into two half-cycles, utsarpiṇī (ascending, progressive prosperity and happiness) and avasarpiṇī (descending, increasing sorrow and immorality). It states that the world is currently in the fifth ara of avasarpiṇī , full of sorrow and religious decline, where the height of living beings shrinks. According to Jainism, after
8250-543: The five life events of the tirthankaras , including the Panch Kalyanaka Pratishtha Mahotsava , Panch Kalyanaka Puja and Snatrapuja . The basic ritual is darsana (seeing) of deva , which includes Jina, or other yaksas , gods and goddesses such as Brahmadeva, 52 Viras, Padmavati , Ambika and 16 Vidyadevis (including Sarasvati and Lakshmi ). Terapanthi Digambaras limit their ritual worship to tirthankaras. The worship ritual
8360-445: The flesh, and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation). Inner austerities include expiation, confession, respecting and assisting mendicants , studying, meditation, and ignoring bodily wants in order to abandon the body. Lists of internal and external austerities vary with the text and tradition. Asceticism is viewed as a means to control desires, and to purify the jiva (soul). The tirthankaras such as
8470-459: The forest, and Lakshmana joins them in their exile as the caring close brother. Rama heads outside the Kosala kingdom, crosses Yamuna river and initially stays at Chitrakuta, on the banks of river Mandakini, in the hermitage of sage Vasishtha . During the exile, Rama meets one of his devotee, Shabari who happened to love him so much that when Rama asked something to eat she offered her ber ,
8580-655: The framework of Indian beliefs such as on karma and dharma . Rama's life and comments emphasise that one must pursue and live life fully, that all three life aims are equally important: virtue (dharma), desires ( kama ), and legitimate acquisition of wealth ( artha ). Rama also adds, such as in section 4.38 of the Ramayana , that one must also introspect and never neglect what one's proper duties, appropriate responsibilities, true interests, and legitimate pleasures are. Jainism Jainism ( / ˈ dʒ eɪ n ɪ z əm / JAY -niz-əm ), also known as Jain Dharma ,
8690-750: The help of Mughal wazir took the Bargujar stronghold of Ghasera from its ruler Bahadur Singh Badgurjar which was again recovered by Bahadur Singh's son with the help of Imad ul MulK. Among small petty states ruled by Bargujar Rajputs were Daria Kheri , Kamalpur . Other Jagirs once controlled by Badgujars Barauli Rao . The Ghasera Fort and Khandar F ort are among the two major forts built by Bargujar Rajput rulers. They are mainly distributed parts of present-day Rajasthan , Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh . Rama Traditional Rama ( / ˈ r ɑː m ə / ; Sanskrit : राम , IAST : Rāma , Sanskrit: [ˈraːmɐ] )
8800-403: The images. Some Jain sects employ a pujari (also called upadhye ), who may be a Hindu, to perform priestly duties at the temple. More elaborate worship includes offerings such as rice, fresh and dry fruits, flowers, coconut, sweets, and money. Some may light up a lamp with camphor and make auspicious marks with sandalwood paste. Devotees also recite Jain texts, particularly the life stories of
8910-454: The insentient ( ajiva or non-living), the karmic influx to the soul ( Āsrava , which is a mix of living and non-living), the bondage of karmic particles to the soul ( Bandha ), the stoppage of karmic particles ( Saṃvara ), the wiping away of past karmic particles ( Nirjarā ), and the liberation ( Moksha ). Śvētāmbaras add two further tattvas , namely good karma ( Punya ) and bad karma ( Paapa ). The true insight in Jain philosophy
9020-558: The law of substance dualism , and the actual realization of this principle plays out through the phenomena of both parallelism and interactionism . Dravya means substances or entity in Sanskrit . Jains believe the universe is made up of six eternal substances: sentient beings or souls ( jīva ), non-sentient substance or matter ( pudgala ), the principle of motion ( dharma ), the principle of rest ( adharma ), space ( ākāśa ), and time ( kāla ). The last five are united as
9130-689: The lunar cycle of Chaitra (March–April), the first month in the Hindu calendar . According to the Ramayana , Rama was born to Dasaratha and his first wife Kausalya in Ayodhya , the capital of the Kingdom of Kosala . His siblings included Lakshmana , Bharata , and Shatrughna . He married Sita . Born in a royal family, Rama's life is described in the Hindu texts as one challenged by unexpected changes, such as an exile into impoverished and difficult circumstances, and challenges of ethical questions and moral dilemmas. The most notable story involving Rama
9240-508: The lunisolar month of Chaitra in the traditional Indian calendar. This typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar. The festivities include visiting Jain temples, pilgrimages to shrines, reading Jain texts and processions of Mahāvīra by the community. At his legendary birthplace of Kundagrama in Bihar , north of Patna, special events are held by Jains. The next day of Dipawali
9350-655: The mother of Bharata and the third wife of King Dasharatha , reminds the king that he had promised long ago to comply with one thing she asks, anything. Dasharatha remembers and agrees to do so. She demands that Rama be exiled for fourteen years to Dandaka forest. Dasharatha grieves at her request. Her son Bharata, and other family members become upset at her demand. Rama states that his father should keep his word, adds that he does not crave for earthly or heavenly material pleasures, and seeks neither power nor anything else. He informs of his decision to his wife and tells everyone that time passes quickly. Sita leaves with him to live in
9460-762: The older versions using the name Padma instead of Rama, while the later Jain texts just use Rama. In some Hindu texts, Rama is stated to have lived in the Treta Yuga that their authors estimate existed before about 5000 BCE. Archaeologist H. D. Sankalia , who specialised in Proto- and Ancient Indian history, find such estimate to be "pure speculation". A few other researchers place Rama to have more plausibly lived around 1250 BCE, based on regnal lists of Kuru and Vrishni leaders which if given more realistic reign lengths would place Bharat and Satwata, contemporaries of Rama, around that period. Sankalia dates various incidents of
9570-520: The other hand, wear seamless white clothes. During Chandragupta Maurya's reign, Jain tradition states that Acharya Bhadrabahu predicted a twelve-year-long famine and moved to Karnataka with his disciples. Sthulabhadra , a pupil of Acharya Bhadrabahu, is believed to have stayed in Magadha. Later, as stated in tradition, when followers of Acharya Bhadrabahu returned, they found those who had remained at Magadha had started wearing white clothes, which
9680-405: The prince if he could fulfil the requisite task. When the bow was brought before him, Rama seized the centre of the weapon, fastened the string taut, and broke it in two in the process. Witnessing his prowess, Janaka agreed to marry his daughter to Rama and invited Dasharatha to his capital. During the homeward journey to Ayodhya, another avatar of Vishnu, Parashurama , challenged Rama to combat, on
9790-436: The rumours can neither be objectively investigated nor summarily ignored. Similarly the versions vary on many other specific situations and closure such as how Rama, Sita and Lakshmana die. The variation and inconsistencies are not limited to the texts found in the Hinduism traditions. The Rama story in the Jain tradition also show variation by author and region, in details, in implied ethical prescriptions and even in names –
9900-603: The second half of the 1st century CE, which pre-dates a similar retelling found in the Buddha-carita of Asvagosa, dated to the beginning of the 2nd century CE or prior. Dasharatha was the king of Kosala , and a part of the Kshatriya solar dynasty of Iksvakus . His mother's name Kaushalya literally implies that she was from Kosala. The kingdom of Kosala is also mentioned in Buddhist and Jain texts , as one of
10010-506: The sixteen Maha janapadas of ancient India , and as an important center of pilgrimage for Jains and Buddhists. However, there is a scholarly dispute whether the modern Ayodhya is indeed the same as the Ayodhya and Kosala mentioned in the Ramayana and other ancient Indian texts. Rama's birth, according to Ramayana , is an incarnation of God ( Vishnu ) as human. When demigods went to Brahma to seek liberation from Ravana's menace on
10120-575: The sixth ara , the universe will be reawakened in a new cycle. Jainism is a transtheistic religion, holding that the universe was not created , and will exist forever. It is independent, having no creator, governor, judge, or destroyer. In this, it is unlike the Abrahamic religions and the theistic strands of Hinduism , but similar to Buddhism. However, Jainism believes in the world of heavenly and hellish beings who are born, die and are reborn like earthly beings. The souls who live happily in
10230-767: The sky as a six-armed incarnate of Vishnu is found in the Burmese version of Rama's life story called Thiri Rama . Rama's legends vary significantly by the region and across manuscripts. While there is a common foundation, plot, grammar and an essential core of values associated with a battle between good and evil, there is neither a correct version nor a single verifiable ancient one. According to Paula Richman, there are hundreds of versions of "the story of Rama in India , Southeast Asia and beyond". The versions vary by region reflecting local preoccupations and histories, and these cannot be called "divergences or different tellings" from
10340-500: The slaughter of animals. Forgiveness I forgive all living beings, may all living beings forgive me. All in this world are my friends, I have no enemies. — Jain festival prayer on the last day The last day involves a focused prayer and meditation session known as Samvatsari . Jains consider this a day of atonement, granting forgiveness to others, seeking forgiveness from all living beings, physically or mentally asking for forgiveness and resolving to treat everyone in
10450-461: The soul ( jiva ). Their interaction explains life, living, death and rebirth in Jain philosophy. The Jain cosmic universe has three parts, the upper, middle, and lower worlds ( urdhva loka , madhya loka , and adho loka ). Jainism states that Kāla (time) is without beginning and eternal; the cosmic wheel of time, kālachakra , rotates ceaselessly. In this part of the universe, it explains, there are six periods of time within two eons ( ara ), and in
10560-454: The soul, travel with the soul in bound form between rebirths, and affect the suffering and happiness experienced by the jiva in the lokas . Karma is believed to obscure and obstruct the innate nature and striving of the soul, as well as its spiritual potential in the next rebirth. The conceptual framework of the Saṃsāra doctrine differs between Jainism and other Indian religions. Soul ( jiva )
10670-524: The test. Rama and Sita live happily together in Ayodhya, have twin sons named Kusha and Lava , in the Ramayana and other major texts. However, in some revisions, the story is different and tragic, with Sita dying of sorrow for her husband not trusting her, making Sita a moral heroine and leaving the reader with moral questions about Rama. In these revisions, the death of Sita leads Rama to drown himself. Through death, he joins her in afterlife. Depiction of Rama dying by drowning himself and then emerging in
10780-400: The texts considered canonical. Both sub-traditions have mendicants supported by laypersons ( śrāvakas and śrāvikas ). The Śvētāmbara tradition in turn has two sub-traditions: Deravasi, also known as Mandirmargis, and Sthānakavasī. The religion has between four and five million followers, known as Jains or Jainas , who reside mostly in India , where they numbered around 4.5 million at
10890-465: The tirthankaras. Traditional Jains, like Buddhists and Hindus, believe in the efficacy of mantras and that certain sounds and words are inherently auspicious, powerful and spiritual. The most famous of the mantras, broadly accepted in various sects of Jainism, is the "five homage" ( panca namaskara ) mantra which is believed to be eternal and existent since the first tirthankara's time. Medieval worship practices included making tantric diagrams of
11000-542: The truth of soul ( jīva ); Samyak Gyana (Correct Knowledge), meaning undoubting knowledge of the tattvas ; and Samyak Charitra (Correct Conduct), meaning behavior consistent with the Five vows. Jain texts often add samyak tapas (Correct Asceticism) as a fourth jewel, emphasizing belief in ascetic practices as the means to liberation ( moksha ). The four jewels are called Moksha Marga (the path of liberation). The principle of ahimsa (non-violence or non-injury)
11110-459: The truth". According to it, one can experience the taste of truth, but cannot fully express that taste through language. It holds that attempts to express experience are syāt , or valid "in some respect", but remain "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete". It concludes that in the same way, spiritual truths can be experienced but not fully expressed. It suggests that the great error is belief in ekānta (one-sidedness), where some relative truth
11220-485: The use of mouth cover, as well as the Dandasan – a long stick with woolen threads – to gently remove ants and insects that may come in their path. The practice of non-violence towards all living beings has led to Jain culture being vegetarian . Devout Jains practice lacto-vegetarianism , meaning that they eat no eggs, but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production. Veganism
11330-406: The vibration draws karmic particles to the soul and creates bondages, but is also what adds merit or demerit to the soul. Jain texts state that souls exist as "clothed with material bodies", where it entirely fills up the body. Karma, as in other Indian religions, connotes in Jainism the universal cause and effect law. However, it is envisioned as a material substance (subtle matter) that can bind to
11440-433: The violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness, or when one indirectly causes or consents to the killing of a human or non-human living being. The doctrine exists in Hinduism and Buddhism, but is most highly developed in Jainism. The theological basis of non-violence as the highest religious duty has been interpreted by some Jain scholars not to "be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor
11550-559: The word of scriptures). These ideas are elaborated in Jain texts such as Tattvarthasūtra , Parvacanasara , Nandi and Anuyogadvarini . Some Jain texts add analogy ( upamana ) as the fourth reliable means, in a manner similar to epistemological theories found in other Indian religions. In Jainism, jnāna (knowledge) is said to be of five kinds – mati jñāna (sensory knowledge), śrutu jñāna (scriptural knowledge), avadhi jñāna ( clairvoyance ), manah prayāya Jñāna ( telepathy ) and kevala jnana ( omniscience ). According to
11660-411: The world as friends. Forgiveness is asked by saying " Micchami Dukkadam " or " Khamat khamna " to others. This means, "If I have offended you in any way, knowingly or unknowingly, in thought, word or action, then I seek your forgiveness." The literal meaning of Paryushana is "abiding" or "coming together". Mahavir Janma Kalyanak celebrates the birth of Mahāvīra. It is celebrated on the 13th day of
11770-495: The world. The Jain new year starts right after Diwali. Some other festivals celebrated by Jains are Akshaya Tritiya and Raksha Bandhan , similar to those in the Hindu communities. The Jain community is divided into two major denominations , Digambara and Śvētāmbara . Monks of the Digambara (sky-clad) tradition do not wear clothes. Female monastics of the Digambara sect wear unstitched plain white sarees and are referred to as Aryikas . Śvētāmbara (white-clad) monastics, on
11880-479: Was a minister of Sugriva. Meanwhile, Ravana harasses Sita to be his wife, queen or goddess. Sita refuses him. Ravana gets enraged and ultimately reaches Lanka, fights in a war that has many ups and downs, but ultimately Rama prevails, kills Ravana and forces of evil, and rescues his wife Sita. They return to Ayodhya. The return of Rama to Ayodhya was celebrated with his coronation. It is called Rama pattabhisheka , and his rule itself as Rama rajya described to be
11990-595: Was the brother of Shurpanakha. Ravana comes to Panchavati to take revenge on behalf of his family, sees Sita, gets attracted, ask Maricha , his uncle, to disguised himself as a magnificent deer to lure Sita, and kidnaps her to his kingdom of Lanka (believed to be modern Sri Lanka ) . Rama and Lakshmana discover the kidnapping, worry about Sita's safety, despair at the loss and their lack of resources to take on Ravana. Their struggles now reach new heights. They travel south, meet Sugriva , marshall an army of monkeys, and attract dedicated commanders such as Hanuman who
12100-512: Was unacceptable to the others who remained naked. This is how Jains believe the Digambara and Śvētāmbara schism began, with the former being naked while the latter wore white clothes. Digambara saw this as being opposed to the Jain tenet of aparigraha which, according to them, required not even possession of clothes, i.e. complete nudity. In the fifth-century CE, the Council of Valabhi was organized by Śvētāmbara, which Digambara did not attend. At
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