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71-590: Santa Monica Airport ( IATA : SMO , ICAO : KSMO , FAA LID : SMO ) (Santa Monica Municipal Airport) is a general aviation airport largely in Santa Monica , California , United States , in the Greater Los Angeles area. It opened on April 15, 1928, making it one of the United States' oldest airports, and it has been one of the world's foremost general aviation airports (at one time,

142-599: A customer service representative (CSR). At medium and large airports, FBOs are typically affiliated with one of the major aviation fuel suppliers and display the fuel supplier's sign prominently. At smaller airports, the FBO is often the airport operator, such as Alpha Aviation at Boundary bay Airport (CZBB) or a flying club. Within the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulates some activities that may comprise an FBO such as

213-402: A city could impose reasonable restrictions on airport activity and noise. The City responded by preparing 85 decibel restrictions, which threatened to oust most aircraft from the field. It also began other actions against the airport, including evictions of most aviation operators. Further, in 1981, the airport's 215 acres (87 hectares) occupied five percent of the usable land of Santa Monica, in

284-567: A new airport is built, replacing the old one, leaving the city's new "major" airport (or the only remaining airport) code to no longer correspond with the city's name. The original airport in Nashville, Tennessee, was built in 1936 as part of the Works Progress Administration and called Berry Field with the designation, BNA. A new facility known as Nashville International Airport was built in 1987 but still uses BNA. This

355-414: A private fleet of jets, but was denied permission by the city. Lear thus sold the building to Pacific Airmotive , who then rented the space to private jet owners. After Pacific Airmotive went out of business in 1969, the hanger was sold to former Pacific Airmotive engineer James Barker, who then used the building for aviation-contract engineering. After he died of leukemia in 1986, his daughter Judi converted

426-531: A total of 215 acres (87 ha) of land. One of the airport's former hangars , the Barker Hangar, is in use as a public events venue, and is commonly used for a number of televised awards ceremonies and concerts. Originally Clover Field , after World War I aviator 2nd lieutenant Greayer "Grubby" Clover , the airport was the home of the Douglas Aircraft company. The first circumnavigation of

497-509: Is GSN and its IATA code is SPN, and some coincide with IATA codes of non-U.S. airports. Canada's unusual codes—which bear little to no similarity with any conventional abbreviation to the city's name—such as YUL in Montréal , and YYZ in Toronto , originated from the two-letter codes used to identify weather reporting stations in the 1930s. The letters preceding the two-letter code follow

568-403: Is an organization granted the right by an airport to operate at the airport and provide aeronautical services such as fueling, hangaring, tie-down, and parking, aircraft rental, aircraft maintenance , flight instruction , and similar services. In common practice, an FBO is the primary provider of support services to general aviation operators at a public-use airport and is on land leased from

639-546: Is anticipated that the airport land will be redeveloped into areas for parks, open space, recreation, education and/or cultural use. In an attempt to reduce jet traffic, the city decided to shorten the runway from 4,973 feet to 3,500 feet by repainting the runway and moving some navigational aids. The runway shortening was completed on December 23, 2017. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency IATA airport code The assignment of these codes

710-554: Is available. However, many railway administrations have their own list of codes for their stations, such as the list of Amtrak station codes . Airport codes arose out of the convenience that the practice brought pilots for location identification in the 1930s. Initially, pilots in the United States used the two-letter code from the National Weather Service (NWS) for identifying cities. This system became unmanageable for cities and towns without an NWS identifier, and

781-523: Is different from the name in English, yet the airport code represents only the English name. Examples include: Due to scarcity of codes, some airports are given codes with letters not found in their names: The use of 'X' as a filler letter is a practice to create three-letter identifiers when more straightforward options were unavailable: Some airports in the United States retained their NWS ( National Weather Service ) codes and simply appended an X at

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852-671: Is governed by IATA Resolution 763, and it is administered by the IATA's headquarters in Montreal , Canada. The codes are published semi-annually in the IATA Airline Coding Directory. IATA provides codes for airport handling entities, and for certain railway stations. Alphabetical lists of airports sorted by IATA code are available. A list of railway station codes , shared in agreements between airlines and rail lines such as Amtrak , SNCF , and Deutsche Bahn ,

923-513: Is in conjunction to rules aimed to avoid confusion that seem to apply in the United States, which state that "the first and second letters or second and third letters of an identifier may not be duplicated with less than 200 nautical miles separation." Thus, Washington, D.C. area's three airports all have radically different codes: IAD for Washington–Dulles , DCA for Washington–Reagan (District of Columbia Airport), and BWI for Baltimore (Baltimore–Washington International, formerly BAL). Since HOU

994-543: Is not followed outside the United States: In addition, since three letter codes starting with Q are widely used in radio communication, cities whose name begins with "Q" also had to find alternate codes, as in the case of: IATA codes should not be confused with the FAA identifiers of U.S. airports. Most FAA identifiers agree with the corresponding IATA codes, but some do not, such as Saipan , whose FAA identifier

1065-416: Is used for William P. Hobby Airport , the new Houston–Intercontinental became IAH. The code BKK was originally assigned to Bangkok–Don Mueang and was later transferred to Suvarnabhumi Airport , while the former adopted DMK. The code ISK was originally assigned to Gandhinagar Airport (Nashik's old airport) and later on transferred to Ozar Airport (Nashik's current airport). Shanghai–Hongqiao retained

1136-571: The Canadian transcontinental railroads were built, each station was assigned its own two-letter Morse code : When the Canadian government established airports, it used the existing railway codes for them as well. If the airport had a weather station, authorities added a "Y" to the front of the code, meaning "Yes" to indicate it had a weather station or some other letter to indicate it did not. When international codes were created in cooperation with

1207-525: The NBA Awards , and the People's Choice Awards . It was also used as a small-scale supermarket set for the 2020 version of Supermarket Sweep . The city has invited the public to offer input regarding the airport's future. The city of Santa Monica sued the federal government seeking to void a 1948 agreement in which the city agreed to keep the land for aviation use in perpetuity in exchange for title to

1278-536: The South Coast Air Quality Management District warned that SMO was a source of abnormally high air pollution in the area, particularly for ultrafine particles that threatened the health of children and the elderly, and those with respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. In neighborhoods downwind of the airport, ultrafine particles were measured at 2.5 to 10 times the normal amount. The FAA attempted remediation by controlling

1349-450: The City of Santa Monica aggressively enforces one of the most stringent noise ordinances in the nation. In addition to responding to the community's noise concerns and enforcing the City's Aircraft Noise Ordinance, which includes a maximum allowable noise level, curfew hours and certain operational limitations, airport staff is involved in a variety of supplementary activities intended to reduce

1420-674: The FAA, has the duty of establishing minimum standards for commercial aeronautical activities and recommends implementation of these standards by the airport operator or agency, commonly referred to as the airport sponsor. The United States FBO Industry is represented nationally by the National Air Transportation Association or NATA, but is also partly represented by both the National Business Aviation Association (NBAA) and

1491-544: The NBAA, failed in court. In 2022, the Frieze Art Fair announced that its Los Angeles edition would move to the airport in 2023, occupying a massive temporary tent designed by Kulapat Yantrasast ’s architecture firm WHY and hosting more than 100 exhibitors in addition to expanded programming and activations. U.S. Presidents Donald Trump (in 2019) and Joe Biden (in 2022 and 2023) both landed at SMO during visits to

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1562-475: The Santa Monica Airport receives no federal, state or local funding to operate, the landing fees fill the gap between other airport revenue and the cost of operations. On April 13, 2013, the rates were increased to $ 5.48 per 1,000 pounds of maximum certificated gross landing weight. Airport Park opened as an 8.3-acre (3.4 ha) public park on recaptured aviation lands at the southeast corner of

1633-583: The Santa Monica city government imposed a noise limit of 100 decibels on departing aircraft. Airport supporters, including airport users, the General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA), National Business Aircraft Association (NBAA), and Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA), fought the city in federal court. However, in their first conflict, the U.S. Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that

1704-466: The U.S. For example, several airports in Alaska have scheduled commercial service, such as Stebbins and Nanwalek , which use FAA codes instead of ICAO codes. Thus, neither system completely includes all airports with scheduled service. Some airports are identified in colloquial speech by their IATA code. Examples include LAX and JFK . Fixed base operations A fixed-base operator ( FBO )

1775-481: The United States, because "Y" was seldom used in the United States, Canada simply used the weather station codes for its airports, changing the "Y" to a "Z" if it conflicted with an airport code already in use. The result is that most major Canadian airport codes start with "Y" followed by two letters in the city's name (for example, YOW for O tta w a , YWG for W innipe g , YYC for C algar y , or YVR for V ancouve r ), whereas other Canadian airports append

1846-410: The airport is closed. It proscribes commercial development, limiting development of the land to "public parks, recreational facilities or open space." However, it allows the city council to decide what constitutes such facilities and to replace existing structures without voter approval. Cited reasons for public support of airport closure are an alleged threat to safety, despite no ground fatalities in

1917-440: The airport itself instead of the city it serves, while another code is reserved which refers to the city itself which can be used to search for flights to any of its airports. For instance: Or using a code for the city in one of the major airports and then assigning another code to another airport: When different cities with the same name each have an airport, they need to be assigned different codes. Examples include: Sometimes,

1988-511: The airport's Fly Neighborly Program and included in the program's outreach materials. The aviation aspects of aircraft operations at the Santa Monica Airport and use of the nation's airspace is regulated by the federal government through the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). The City is jurisdictionally preempted by federal law from establishing or enforcing new local laws that would affect aircraft operations or

2059-418: The airport's former name, such as Orlando International Airport 's MCO (for Mc C o y Air Force Base), or Chicago's O'Hare International Airport , which is coded ORD for its original name: Or char d Field. In rare cases, the code comes from the airport's unofficial name, such as Kahului Airport 's OGG (for local aviation pioneer Jimmy H ogg ). In large metropolitan areas, airport codes are often named after

2130-409: The airport, or, in rare cases, adjacent property as a " through the fence operation ". In many smaller airports serving general aviation in remote or modest communities, the town itself may provide fuel services and operate a basic FBO facility. Most FBOs doing business at airports of high to moderate traffic volume are non-governmental organizations, either privately or publicly held companies. Though

2201-404: The airport. The park features a synthetic turf soccer field, open green space and off-leash dog area. Santa Monica Airport includes Barker Hangar, a former aircraft hangar that was converted to a 35,000-square-foot (3,300 m) entertainment venue. The hanger was originally built in 1954 by Bill Lear , inventor and founder of the jet manufacturer Learjet . He intended to use the hanger to build

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2272-454: The area—arriving in their Marine One helicopter, after first arriving at Los Angeles International Airport aboard Air Force One . The airport has a control tower. On average, it handled 296 operations a day (for the 12 months – ended July 2011. Traffic decreased to 83,381 annual operations in 2014. As the Santa Monica Airport is one of many general aviation airports in the nation that is surrounded on some sides by residential development,

2343-407: The authorization of repair stations, flight training, and air taxi/air carrier services. However, there are no federal regulatory standards covering all FBOs. The FAA has defined an FBO as "a commercial entity providing aeronautical services such as fueling, maintenance, storage, ground and flight instruction, etc., to the public." The United States Department of Transportation , in cooperation with

2414-454: The aviation interests/FAA. An array of issues exists, which are still hotly debated in local, state, and national political arenas – as well as the courts. The consensus opinion is that the many issues will ultimately be decided in the courts, with the dates of transfer-of-control being the central issues. In November 2014, voters passed the city-council-sponsored Measure LC, with a 60% "yes" vote. Measure LC places limitations on land use once

2485-473: The busiest single-runway airport in the world). The airport is about 2 miles (3 km) from the Pacific Ocean ( Santa Monica Bay ) and 6 miles (10 km) north of Los Angeles International Airport (LAX). The FAA 's National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2009–2013 categorized it as a reliever airport . The airport is scheduled to close at the end of 2028. Santa Monica Airport covers

2556-459: The city-owned land, by expiry of prior city-FAA agreements. One tactic recommended by airport opponents is to demolish the portion of the runway which sits upon this land, with the primary justification being safety. That is, at a minimum, the allowance of a buffer between the end of the runway and residential houses – currently 300 feet away – more preferably with the installation of aircraft-arrestors to prevent any runway overshoot from rolling past

2627-410: The city-owned parcel. The appeal also noted that the FAA's leasehold, granted during World War II, was for that purpose alone, and could not be transformed into a larger interest (such as a permanent taking of city land by FAA demanding use of the land for air-travel purposes in perpetuity). There has yet been no finally conclusive legal decision, nor any preclusive agreement reached between the city and

2698-502: The code SHA, while the newer Shanghai–Pudong adopted PVG. The opposite was true for Berlin : the airport Berlin–Tegel used the code TXL, while its smaller counterpart Berlin–Schönefeld used SXF; the Berlin Brandenburg Airport has the airport code BER, which is also part of its branding. The airports of Hamburg (HAM) and Hannover (HAJ) are less than 100 nautical miles (190 km) apart and therefore share

2769-500: The departure of Douglas, the airport became a principal general aviation "reliever" airport for the Greater Los Angeles area, accommodating mostly business aircraft, training aircraft, and personal planes. In 1968, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), in exchange for an airport-development grant, contracted with the City of Santa Monica to ensure the airport land would be used for aviation services, including fuel, maintenance and fixed base operations , until 1988. Starting in

2840-450: The desire to close the airport, and/or develop new low-cost housing, were elected to 6 of the 7 city council seats. Battles between opponents and defenders of the airport have continued, with various court decisions and FAA legal opinions emerging, favoring one side or the other. However the airport has remained open throughout the rest of the 20th Century, and into the 21st. In 2009, with jet traffic increasing at SMO, studies by UCLA and

2911-550: The end of World War I in November 1918, civil aviation in the United States was primarily unregulated and made up of "barnstormers ," transient pilots flying inexpensive military surplus aircraft from city to city and often landing in farm fields on the outskirts of a town because airports were scarce at that time. The traveling aviators offered airplane rides and aerobatic flight demonstrations frequently collaborating as " flying circuses " by performing impromptu airshows for

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2982-934: The end. Examples include: A lot of minor airfields without scheduled passenger traffic have ICAO codes but not IATA codes, since the four letter codes allow more number of codes, and IATA codes are mainly used for passenger services such as tickets, and ICAO codes by pilots. In the US, such airfields use FAA codes instead of ICAO. There are airports with scheduled service for which there are ICAO codes but not IATA codes, such as Nkhotakota Airport/Tangole Airport in Malawi or Chōfu Airport in Tokyo, Japan. There are also several minor airports in Russia (e.g., Omsukchan Airport ) which lack IATA codes and instead use internal Russian codes for booking. Flights to these airports cannot be booked through

3053-514: The entire Douglas Commercial "DC" series of reciprocating-engine-powered airliners including the DC-1 (a prototype), DC-2 , DC-3 , DC-4 , DC-5 (only 12 built), DC-6 and DC-7 . During World War II, B-18 Bolo and B-18A bombers and thousands of C-47 (military version of the DC-3) and C-54 (later the civilian DC-4) military transports were built at Santa Monica, during which time the airport area

3124-600: The field's naming for a crop of green rather than a fallen soldier — is a remnant of the airport's original name, as is the name of the Cloverfield film series , which derives its name from that road. Clover Field was once the site of the Army's 40th Division Aviation, 115th Observation Squadron and became a Distribution Center after World War II. Douglas Aircraft Company was headquartered adjacent to Clover Field. Among other important aircraft built there, Douglas manufactured

3195-557: The first three letters of the city in which it is located, for instance: The code may also be a combination of the letters in its name, such as: Sometimes the airport code reflects pronunciation, rather than spelling, namely: For many reasons, some airport codes do not fit the normal scheme described above. Some airports, for example, cross several municipalities or regions, and therefore, use codes derived from some of their letters, resulting in: Other airports—particularly those serving cities with multiple airports—have codes derived from

3266-478: The following format: Most large airports in Canada have codes that begin with the letter "Y", although not all "Y" codes are Canadian (for example, YUM for Yuma, Arizona , and YNT for Yantai , China), and not all Canadian airports start with the letter "Y" (for example, ZBF for Bathurst, New Brunswick ). Many Canadian airports have a code that starts with W, X or Z, but none of these are major airports. When

3337-412: The following: Though not required, fixed-base operators generally also provide at least basic auxiliary services to pilots, flight crew, and passengers such as restroom facilities, telecommunication services, and waiting areas. General aviation FBOs (commonly in the U.S.) sometimes provide courtesy cars that can be used for free or little cost by flight crews mostly for short trips from the airport and

3408-597: The form of " YYZ ", a song by the rock band Rush , which utilizes the Morse code signal as a musical motif. Some airports have started using their IATA codes as brand names , such as Calgary International Airport (YYC) and Vancouver International Airport (YVR). Numerous New Zealand airports use codes that contain the letter Z, to distinguish them from similar airport names in other countries. Examples include HLZ for Hamilton , ZQN for Queenstown , and WSZ for Westport . Predominantly, airport codes are named after

3479-529: The hanger to the present-day events venue. The hangar has hosted a variety of events, including boxing matches, art presentations, movies, concerts, wine and food festivals, and trade shows. The 2005 album INXS: Live at Barker Hangar is a live recording of a 1993 concert held at the hanger by Australian rock band INXS . Award shows hosted at the Barker Hanger include the MTV Movie & TV Awards ,

3550-507: The heart of the burgeoning population of the Greater Los Angeles area, making it highly desirable real estate for development. One study indicated that intense development of the airport land could double the city's revenue. Additionally, the city was mostly populated by apartment renters, and rent-cost control was a primary motivating factor in city elections at the time, with the result that liberal candidates who had expressed

3621-487: The international air booking systems or have international luggage transferred there, and thus, they are booked instead through the airline or a domestic booking system. Several heliports in Greenland have 3-letter codes used internally which might be IATA codes for airports in faraway countries. There are several airports with scheduled service that have not been assigned ICAO codes that do have IATA codes, especially in

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3692-451: The late-1970s, the airport became the object of numerous political battles seeking to limit or close the airport—ultimately becoming a key precedent for various such airport battles across the nation—pitting local area residents, land developers and local government against airport users and general aviation industry organizations, sometimes supported by the FAA. Initially, residents off the departure end of Runway 21 complained of noise, and

3763-612: The name of the airport itself, for instance: This is also true with some cities with a single airport (even if there is more than one airport in the metropolitan area of said city), such as BDL for Hartford, Connecticut 's B ra dl ey International Airport or Baltimore's BWI, for B altimore/ W ashington I nternational Airport ; however, the latter also serves Washington, D.C. , alongside Dulles International Airport (IAD, for I nternational A irport D ulles) and Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport (DCA, for D istrict of C olumbia A irport). The code also sometimes comes from

3834-413: The neighborhood around the airport in over a century, including a November 26, 1993, crash by a student pilot into an apartment building directly adjacent to a gasoline filling station, in a densely populated area of the city, and resulting in three fatalities (none on the ground). The western parcel of the land on which the airport sits was to revert to city control, on June 15, 2015, of this sub-parcel of

3905-416: The one they are located in: Other airport codes are of obscure origin, and each has its own peculiarities: In Asia, codes that do not correspond with their city's names include Niigata 's KIJ , Nanchang 's KHN and Pyongyang 's FNJ . EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg , which serves three countries, has three airport codes: BSL, MLH, EAP. Some cities have a name in their respective language which

3976-401: The overall impact of aircraft operations on the residential areas surrounding the airport. The following procedures and limitations are enforced in accordance with the noise ordinance. Violations may result in the imposition of fines and/or exclusion from Santa Monica Airport. In addition, there are numerous recommended noise abatement procedures and limitations that have been incorporated into

4047-438: The property. On February 13, 2014, Judge John F. Walter dismissed the lawsuit, ruling that the city's "quiet title action" was barred by the statute of limitations and that the other issues would not be ripe for a judicial decision until the city decides definitively whether it will close the airport. The city appealed on October 14, 2014, citing the expiration of the 1948 agreement, after which FAA had agreed to release control of

4118-408: The runway and into the residential homes. The FAA offered such an arrestor system to the city in 2008, but this offer was rebuffed. On January 28, 2017, it was announced that Santa Monica city officials and the Federal Aviation Administration had reached an agreement to close the Santa Monica Airport on December 31, 2028, and return 227 acres of aviation land to the city for eventual redevelopment. It

4189-506: The same first and middle letters, indicating that this rule might be followed only in Germany. Many cities retain historical names in their airport codes, even after having undergone an official name/spelling/transliteration change: Some airport codes are based on previous names associated with a present airport, often with a military heritage. These include: Some airports are named for an administrative division or nearby city, rather than

4260-500: The station code of Malton, Mississauga , where it is located). YUL is used for Montréal–Trudeau (UL was the ID code for the beacon in the city of Kirkland , now the location of Montréal–Trudeau). While these codes make it difficult for the public to associate them with a particular Canadian city, some codes have become popular in usage despite their cryptic nature, particularly at the largest airports. Toronto's code has entered pop culture in

4331-508: The surrounding city area. Larger and better equipped FBOs may additionally offer food vending and restaurant facilities, ground transportation arrangements by taxi/limousine, shuttle van, flight planning and weather information areas (computer- or telephone-based), rest lounges and showers, aviation supplies shop (selling navigation charts , manuals, or in-flight comfort items), access to in-flight catering, and accommodations reservations or concierge services for both crew and passengers through

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4402-614: The term fixed-base operator originated in the United States, the term has become more common in the international aviation industry as business and corporate aviation has grown. The term has not been officially defined as an international standard, but there have been recent uses of the term in International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) publications such as Implementing the Global Aviation Safety Roadmap . After

4473-420: The timing of engine run-ups and positioning of aircraft, but some residents complained that the measures failed to resolve the problem. In 2017, the FAA agreed to let the city shorten the runway from 4,925 feet (1,501 m) to 3,500 feet (1,100 m)—effectively blocking most jets from using the airport—and allowing the city to completely close the airport by 2028. A legal challenge to the agreement, backed by

4544-498: The townsfolk and charging whatever the local economic conditions would allow. As a result, mechanics and early flight instructors moved around with the aircraft and had no established business in any location. With passage of the Air Commerce Act of 1926 and its resulting requirements for the licensing of pilots, aircraft maintenance requirements, and regulations in training standards, the transient nature of civil aviation

4615-515: The two-letter code of the radio beacons that were the closest to the actual airport, such as YQX in Gander or YXS in Prince George . Four of the ten provincial capital airports in Canada have ended up with codes beginning with YY, including: Canada's largest airport is YYZ for Toronto Pearson (as YTZ was already allocated to Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport , the airport was given

4686-506: The use of airspace around the Santa Monica Airport. The Typhoon Restaurant (now closed) was the only restaurant on the airport property with a runway view. The former Spitfire Grill, now the Cloverfield restaurant, is across Airport Avenue. The restaurant The Hump was closed in 2010 after its chef and owner were arrested for serving whale meat. The Museum of Flying at the airport houses a collection of historic aircraft. A new facility

4757-529: The use of two letters allowed only a few hundred combinations; a three-letter system of airport codes was implemented. This system allowed for 17,576 permutations, assuming all letters can be used in conjunction with each other. Since the U.S. Navy reserved "N" codes, and to prevent confusion with Federal Communications Commission broadcast call signs , which begin with "W" or "K", the airports of certain U.S. cities whose name begins with one of these letters had to adopt "irregular" airport codes: This practice

4828-564: The world by air , accomplished by the U.S. Army in a fleet of special custom built aircraft named the Douglas World Cruiser , took off from Clover Field on St. Patrick's Day , March 17, 1924, and returned there after some 28,000 miles (45,000 km). The first Powder Puff Derby originated from Clover Field, and the field hosted aircraft of pioneer aviators Amelia Earhart , Howard Hughes , Wallace Beery , and Wiley Post , among others. Cloverfield Boulevard — which confuses

4899-509: Was built on the south side of the airport and is now open. One of the airport's oldest buildings, next to the restored Douglas DC-3, hosts the U.S. Civil Air Patrol's Clover Field Composite Squadron 51. On August 1, 2005, the Santa Monica City Council implemented a landing fee program (Resolution No. 9855) for all aircraft based on a uniform rate of $ 2.07 per 1000 pounds of maximum certificated gross landing weight. Since

4970-591: Was cleverly disguised from the air with the construction of a false "town" (built with the help of Hollywood craftsmen) suspended atop it. In 1958, Donald Douglas asked the city to lengthen the airport's runway so that Douglas Aircraft could produce and test the DC-8 there. The city, bowing to objections of residents, refused to do so, and Douglas closed a plant that had employed 44,000 workers in World War II, moving airliner production to Long Beach Airport . With

5041-418: Was curtailed. The pilots and mechanics who made their living on the road began establishing permanent businesses at the growing number of airports appearing throughout the United States. These were termed fixed-base operations to distinguish them from the transient businesses that had been common prior to 1926. Fixed-base operators support a wide range of aeronautical activities which may include one or more of

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