The Works Progress Administration ( WPA ; renamed in 1939 as the Work Projects Administration ) was an American New Deal agency that employed millions of jobseekers (mostly men who were not formally educated ) to carry out public works projects, including the construction of public buildings and roads. It was set up on May 6, 1935, by presidential order, as a key part of the Second New Deal .
142-751: The WPA's first appropriation in 1935 was $ 4.9 billion (about $ 15 per person in the U.S., around 6.7 percent of the 1935 GDP). Headed by Harry Hopkins , the WPA supplied paid jobs to the unemployed during the Great Depression in the United States , while building up the public infrastructure of the US, such as parks, schools, and roads. Most of the jobs were in construction, building more than 620,000 miles (1,000,000 km) of streets and over 10,000 bridges, in addition to many airports and much housing. In 1942,
284-814: A "natural leader of men" with "a flaming soul." Hopkins attended the major conferences of the Allied powers , including the Casablanca Conference (January 1943), the Cairo Conference (November 1943), the Tehran Conference (November–December 1943), and the Yalta Conference (February 1945). His health continued to decline, and he died in 1946 at the age of 55. Hopkins was born at 512 Tenth Street in Sioux City, Iowa ,
426-432: A "natural leader of men" with "a flaming soul." Hopkins attended the major conferences of the Allied powers , including the Casablanca Conference (January 1943), the Cairo Conference (November 1943), the Tehran Conference (November–December 1943), and the Yalta Conference (February 1945). His health continued to decline, and he died in 1946 at the age of 55. Hopkins was born at 512 Tenth Street in Sioux City, Iowa ,
568-558: A chance to participate in the work program. In the South, as might have been expected, this participation has been limited, and differential wages on the basis of race have been more or less effectively established; but in the northern communities, particularly in the urban centers, the Negro has been afforded his first real opportunity for employment in white-collar occupations. The WPA mostly operated segregated units, as did its youth affiliate,
710-462: A few months after the operation, doctors stated that he had only four weeks to live. At this point, Roosevelt brought in experts, who transfused Hopkins with blood plasma that halted his deterioration. When the " Phoney War " phase of World War II ended in May 1940, the situation galvanized Hopkins; as Doris Kearns Goodwin wrote, "the curative impact of Hopkins' increasingly crucial role in the war effort
852-413: A few months after the operation, doctors stated that he had only four weeks to live. At this point, Roosevelt brought in experts, who transfused Hopkins with blood plasma that halted his deterioration. When the " Phoney War " phase of World War II ended in May 1940, the situation galvanized Hopkins; as Doris Kearns Goodwin wrote, "the curative impact of Hopkins' increasingly crucial role in the war effort
994-422: A local public relief agency approved by the WPA. The WPA Division of Employment selected the worker's placement to WPA projects based on previous experience or training. Worker pay was based on three factors: the region of the country, the degree of urbanization , and the individual's skill . It varied from $ 19 per month to $ 94 per month, with the average wage being about $ 52.50—$ 1,136 in present-day terms. The goal
1136-662: A long-running battle with stomach cancer . As Roosevelt's closest confidant, Hopkins assumed a leading foreign policy role after the outset of World War II . From 1940 until 1943, Hopkins lived in the White House and assisted the president in the management of American foreign policy, particularly toward the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union . He traveled frequently to the United Kingdom, whose prime minister, Winston Churchill , recalled Hopkins in his memoirs as
1278-479: A long-running battle with stomach cancer . As Roosevelt's closest confidant, Hopkins assumed a leading foreign policy role after the outset of World War II . From 1940 until 1943, Hopkins lived in the White House and assisted the president in the management of American foreign policy, particularly toward the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union . He traveled frequently to the United Kingdom, whose prime minister, Winston Churchill , recalled Hopkins in his memoirs as
1420-511: A profound impact on library life in America. The WPA spent $ 4.47 million on removal and internment between March and November 1942, slightly more than the $ 4.43 million spent by the Army for that purpose during that period. Jason Scott Smith observes that "the eagerness of many WPA administrators to place their organization in the forefront of this wartime enterprise is striking.” The WPA was on
1562-465: A public figure, the two kept up an intimate correspondence until 1945. In 1931, Hopkins married Barbara Duncan, who died of cancer six years later. They had one daughter, Diana (1932–2020). In 1942, Hopkins married Louise Gill Macy (1906–1963) in the Yellow Oval Room at the White House . Macy was a divorced, gregarious former editor for Harper's Bazaar . The two continued to live at
SECTION 10
#17327654645151704-399: A public figure, the two kept up an intimate correspondence until 1945. In 1931, Hopkins married Barbara Duncan, who died of cancer six years later. They had one daughter, Diana (1932–2020). In 1942, Hopkins married Louise Gill Macy (1906–1963) in the Yellow Oval Room at the White House . Macy was a divorced, gregarious former editor for Harper's Bazaar . The two continued to live at
1846-489: A total of 7 million presumably employable persons between the ages of 16 and 65 inclusive. Of these, however, 1.65 million were said to be farm operators or persons who had some non-relief employment, while another 350,000 were, despite the fact that they were already employed or seeking work, considered incapacitated. Deducting this 2 million from the total of 7.15 million, there remained 5.15 million persons age 16 to 65, unemployed, looking for work, and able to work. Because of
1988-627: Is a great hunger and eagerness for music." In 1929, Broadway alone had employed upwards of 25,000 workers, onstage and backstage; in 1933, only 4,000 still had jobs. The Actors' Dinner Club and the Actors' Betterment Association were giving out free meals every day. Every theatrical district in the country suffered as audiences dwindled. The New Deal project was directed by playwright Hallie Flanagan , and employed 12,700 performers and staff at its peak. They presented more than 1,000 performances each month to almost one million people, produced 1,200 plays in
2130-751: Is no power in Europe to oppose her tremendous military forces." Hopkins continued to be a target of attacks even after his death. George Racey Jordan testified to the House Un-American Activities Committee in December 1949 that Hopkins passed nuclear secrets to the Soviets. Historians do not cite Jordan as credible since at the time Jordan claimed to have met with Hopkins in Washington regarding uranium shipments, Hopkins
2272-433: Is no power in Europe to oppose her tremendous military forces." Hopkins continued to be a target of attacks even after his death. George Racey Jordan testified to the House Un-American Activities Committee in December 1949 that Hopkins passed nuclear secrets to the Soviets. Historians do not cite Jordan as credible since at the time Jordan claimed to have met with Hopkins in Washington regarding uranium shipments, Hopkins
2414-629: The Atlantic Conference . Hopkins promoted an aggressive war against Germany and successfully urged Roosevelt to use the Navy to protect convoys headed for Britain before the US had entered the war in December 1941. Roosevelt brought him along as advisor to his meetings with Churchill and Stalin at Cairo , Tehran , Casablanca in 1942–43, and Yalta in 1945. He was a firm supporter of China , which received Lend-Lease aid for its military and air force. Hopkins wielded more diplomatic power than
2556-508: The Atlantic Conference . Hopkins promoted an aggressive war against Germany and successfully urged Roosevelt to use the Navy to protect convoys headed for Britain before the US had entered the war in December 1941. Roosevelt brought him along as advisor to his meetings with Churchill and Stalin at Cairo , Tehran , Casablanca in 1942–43, and Yalta in 1945. He was a firm supporter of China , which received Lend-Lease aid for its military and air force. Hopkins wielded more diplomatic power than
2698-922: The Federal Writers' Project (FWP), the Historical Records Survey (HRS), the Federal Theatre Project (FTP), the Federal Music Project (FMP), and the Federal Art Project (FAP). In the Historical Records Survey, for instance, many former slaves in the South were interviewed; these documents are of immense importance to American history. Theater and music groups toured throughout the United States and gave more than 225,000 performances. Archaeological investigations under
2840-670: The National Youth Administration . Blacks were hired by the WPA as supervisors in the North; however of 10,000 WPA supervisors in the South, only 11 were black. Historian Anthony Badger argues, "New Deal programs in the South routinely discriminated against blacks and perpetuated segregation." The League of the Physically Handicapped in New York was organized in May 1935 to end discrimination by
2982-554: The National Youth Administration . The average worker was about 40 years old (about the same as the average family head on relief). WPA policies were consistent with the strong belief of the time that husbands and wives should not both be working (because the second person working would take one job away from some other breadwinner). A study of 2,000 female workers in Philadelphia showed that 90% were married, but wives were reported as living with their husbands in only 18 percent of
SECTION 20
#17327654645153124-838: The New York Temporary Emergency Relief Administration, the Federal Emergency Relief Administration , the Civil Works Administration , and the Works Progress Administration , which he built into the largest employer in the United States. He later oversaw the $ 50 billion Lend-Lease program of military aid to the Allies and, as Roosevelt's personal envoy, played a pivotal role in shaping the alliance between
3266-416: The New York Temporary Emergency Relief Administration, the Federal Emergency Relief Administration , the Civil Works Administration , and the Works Progress Administration , which he built into the largest employer in the United States. He later oversaw the $ 50 billion Lend-Lease program of military aid to the Allies and, as Roosevelt's personal envoy, played a pivotal role in shaping the alliance between
3408-600: The 1970s, long after opinions about Soviet espionage had hardened into dogma. These files are now open, and they confirm the veracity of nearly all of Jordan’s claims, except for his allegation that Hopkins’s actions were illegal”. It is likely that any Soviets who spoke to Hopkins would have been routinely required to report the contact to the NKVD , the Soviet national security agency. Eduard Mark (1998) says that some Soviets, such as spymaster Iskhak Akhmerov , thought that Hopkins
3550-497: The 1970s, long after opinions about Soviet espionage had hardened into dogma. These files are now open, and they confirm the veracity of nearly all of Jordan’s claims, except for his allegation that Hopkins’s actions were illegal”. It is likely that any Soviets who spoke to Hopkins would have been routinely required to report the contact to the NKVD , the Soviet national security agency. Eduard Mark (1998) says that some Soviets, such as spymaster Iskhak Akhmerov , thought that Hopkins
3692-552: The Bronx Park Employment program, which was one of the first public employment programs in the US. In 1915, New York City Mayor John Purroy Mitchel appointed Hopkins executive secretary of the Bureau of Child Welfare which administered pensions to mothers with dependent children. Hopkins at first opposed America's entrance into World War I , but, when war was declared in 1917, he supported it enthusiastically. He
3834-427: The Bronx Park Employment program, which was one of the first public employment programs in the US. In 1915, New York City Mayor John Purroy Mitchel appointed Hopkins executive secretary of the Bureau of Child Welfare which administered pensions to mothers with dependent children. Hopkins at first opposed America's entrance into World War I , but, when war was declared in 1917, he supported it enthusiastically. He
3976-770: The CWA, employed 8.5 million people in its seven-year history, working on 1.4 million projects, including the building or repair of 103 golf courses, 1,000 airports, 2,500 hospitals, 2,500 sports stadiums, 3,900 schools, 8,192 parks, 12,800 playgrounds, 124,031 bridges, 125,110 public buildings, and 651,087 miles (1,047,823 km) of highways and roads. The WPA operated on its own on selected projects in co-operation with local and state governments, but always with its own staff and budget. Hopkins started programs for youth ( National Youth Administration ) and for artists and writers ( Federal One Programs ). Hopkins and Eleanor Roosevelt worked together to publicize and defend New Deal relief programs. He
4118-721: The CWA, employed 8.5 million people in its seven-year history, working on 1.4 million projects, including the building or repair of 103 golf courses, 1,000 airports, 2,500 hospitals, 2,500 sports stadiums, 3,900 schools, 8,192 parks, 12,800 playgrounds, 124,031 bridges, 125,110 public buildings, and 651,087 miles (1,047,823 km) of highways and roads. The WPA operated on its own on selected projects in co-operation with local and state governments, but always with its own staff and budget. Hopkins started programs for youth ( National Youth Administration ) and for artists and writers ( Federal One Programs ). Hopkins and Eleanor Roosevelt worked together to publicize and defend New Deal relief programs. He
4260-765: The Division of Professional and Service Projects. Most projects were initiated, planned and sponsored by states, counties or cities. Nationwide projects were sponsored until 1939. The WPA built traditional infrastructure of the New Deal such as roads, bridges, schools, libraries, courthouses, hospitals, sidewalks, waterworks, and post-offices, but also constructed museums, swimming pools, parks, community centers, playgrounds, coliseums, markets, fairgrounds, tennis courts, zoos, botanical gardens, auditoriums, waterfronts, city halls, gyms, and university unions. Most of these are still in use today. The amount of infrastructure projects of
4402-498: The Federal Music Project gave music classes to an estimated 132,000 children and adults every week, recorded folk music, served as copyists, arrangers, and librarians to expand the availability of music, and experimented in music therapy. Sokoloff stated, "Music can serve no useful purpose unless it is heard, but these totals on the listeners' side are more eloquent than statistics as they show that in this country there
Works Progress Administration - Misplaced Pages Continue
4544-582: The German experimental U-boat station at Gdynia captured on March 28, 1945, and thus to help the protection of the very convoys that carried Lend-Lease aid. In turn, Hopkins passed on Stalin's stated goals and needs to Roosevelt. As the top American decision maker in Lend-Lease, he gave priority to supplying the Soviet Union, despite repeated objections from Republicans. As Soviet soldiers were bearing
4686-409: The German experimental U-boat station at Gdynia captured on March 28, 1945, and thus to help the protection of the very convoys that carried Lend-Lease aid. In turn, Hopkins passed on Stalin's stated goals and needs to Roosevelt. As the top American decision maker in Lend-Lease, he gave priority to supplying the Soviet Union, despite repeated objections from Republicans. As Soviet soldiers were bearing
4828-533: The Pacific theater and to arrange concessions on the Soviet sphere of influence in postwar Poland . Hopkins had three sons who served in the armed forces during the war: Robert, David and Stephen. Stephen was killed in action while he was serving in the Marine Corps. Hopkins was the top American official assigned to dealing with Soviet officials during World War II. He liaised with Soviet officials from
4970-417: The Pacific theater and to arrange concessions on the Soviet sphere of influence in postwar Poland . Hopkins had three sons who served in the armed forces during the war: Robert, David and Stephen. Stephen was killed in action while he was serving in the Marine Corps. Hopkins was the top American official assigned to dealing with Soviet officials during World War II. He liaised with Soviet officials from
5112-825: The South's population did not have access to any public library. Libraries that existed circulated one book per capita. The early emphasis of these programs was on extending library services to rural populations, by creating libraries in areas that lacked facilities. The WPA library program also greatly augmented reader services in metropolitan and urban centers. By 1938, the WPA Library Services Project had established 2,300 new libraries, 3,400 reading rooms in existing libraries, and 53 traveling libraries for sparsely settled areas. [1] Federal money for these projects could only be spent on worker wages, therefore local municipalities would have to provide upkeep on properties and purchase equipment and materials. At
5254-459: The South, whereas the West was less of a sure thing; swing states took priority over the other states. There was a perception that WPA employees were not diligent workers, and that they had little incentive to give up their busy work in favor of productive jobs. Some employers said that the WPA instilled poor work habits and encouraged inefficiency. Some job applicants found that a WPA work history
5396-753: The Temporary Emergency Relief Administration. He supervised the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA), the Civil Works Administration (CWA), and the Works Progress Administration (WPA). Over 90% of the people employed by the Hopkins programs were unemployed or on relief. He feuded with Harold Ickes , who ran a rival program, the Public Works Administration , which also created jobs by contracting private construction firms, which did not require applicants to be unemployed or on relief. FERA,
5538-518: The Temporary Emergency Relief Administration. He supervised the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA), the Civil Works Administration (CWA), and the Works Progress Administration (WPA). Over 90% of the people employed by the Hopkins programs were unemployed or on relief. He feuded with Harold Ickes , who ran a rival program, the Public Works Administration , which also created jobs by contracting private construction firms, which did not require applicants to be unemployed or on relief. FERA,
5680-552: The United Kingdom. Before he returned, at a small dinner party in the North British Hotel, Glasgow , Hopkins rose to propose a toast: "I suppose you wish to know what I am going to say to President Roosevelt on my return. Well I am going to quote to you one verse from the Book of Ruth ... 'Whither thou goest, I will go and where thou lodgest I will lodge, thy people shall be my people, and thy God my God.'" Hopkins became
5822-430: The United Kingdom. Before he returned, at a small dinner party in the North British Hotel, Glasgow , Hopkins rose to propose a toast: "I suppose you wish to know what I am going to say to President Roosevelt on my return. Well I am going to quote to you one verse from the Book of Ruth ... 'Whither thou goest, I will go and where thou lodgest I will lodge, thy people shall be my people, and thy God my God.'" Hopkins became
Works Progress Administration - Misplaced Pages Continue
5964-710: The United States and the United Kingdom . Born in Iowa, Hopkins settled in New York City after he graduated from Grinnell College . He accepted a position in New York City's Bureau of Child Welfare and worked for various social work and public health organizations. He was elected president of the National Association of Social Workers in 1923. In 1931, New York Temporary Emergency Relief Administration chairman Jesse I. Straus hired Hopkins as
6106-462: The United States and the United Kingdom . Born in Iowa, Hopkins settled in New York City after he graduated from Grinnell College . He accepted a position in New York City's Bureau of Child Welfare and worked for various social work and public health organizations. He was elected president of the National Association of Social Workers in 1923. In 1931, New York Temporary Emergency Relief Administration chairman Jesse I. Straus hired Hopkins as
6248-411: The United States. Cedric Larson stated that "The impact made by the five major cultural projects of the WPA upon the national consciousness is probably greater in total than anyone readily realizes. As channels of communication between the administration and the country at large, both directly and indirectly, the importance of these projects cannot be overestimated, for they all carry a tremendous appeal to
6390-418: The United States. Of these, 8.3 million were children under 16 years of age; 3.8 million were persons between the ages of 16 and 65 who were not working or seeking work. These included housewives, students in school, and incapacitated persons. Another 750,000 were person age 65 or over. Thus, of the total of 20 million persons then receiving relief, 13 million were not considered eligible for employment. This left
6532-511: The WPA against the physically disabled unemployed. The city's Home Relief Bureau coded applications by the physically disabled applicants as "PH" ("physically handicapped"). Thus they were not hired by the WPA. In protest, the League held two sit-ins in 1935. The WPA relented and created 1,500 jobs for physically disabled workers in New York City. About 15% of the household heads on relief were women, and youth programs were operated separately by
6674-748: The WPA included 40,000 new and 85,000 improved buildings. These new buildings included 5,900 new schools; 9,300 new auditoriums, gyms, and recreational buildings; 1,000 new libraries; 7,000 new dormitories; and 900 new armories. In addition, infrastructure projects included 2,302 stadiums, grandstands, and bleachers; 52 fairgrounds and rodeo grounds; 1,686 parks covering 75,152 acres; 3,185 playgrounds; 3,026 athletic fields; 805 swimming pools; 1,817 handball courts; 10,070 tennis courts; 2,261 horseshoe pits; 1,101 ice-skating areas; 138 outdoor theatres; 254 golf courses; and 65 ski jumps. Total expenditures on WPA projects through June 1941 totaled approximately $ 11.4 billion—the equivalent of $ 236 billion today. Over $ 4 billion
6816-484: The WPA libraries was extremely positive. For many, "the WPA had become 'the breadline of the spirit.'" At its height in 1938, there were 38,324 people, primarily women, employed in library services programs, while 25,625 were employed in library services and 12,696 were employed in bookbinding and repair. Because book repair was an activity that could be taught to unskilled workers and once trained, could be conducted with little supervision, repair and mending became
6958-464: The WPA played a key role in both building and staffing internment camps to incarcerate Japanese Americans . At its peak in 1938, it supplied paid jobs for three million unemployed men and women, as well as youth in a separate division, the National Youth Administration . Between 1935 and 1943, the WPA employed 8.5 million people (about half the population of New York). Hourly wages were typically kept well below industry standards. Full employment, which
7100-410: The WPA were influential in the rediscovery of pre-Columbian Native American cultures, and the development of professional archaeology in the US. The WPA was a federal program that ran its own projects in cooperation with state and local governments, which supplied 10–30% of the costs. Usually, the local sponsor provided land and often trucks and supplies, with the WPA responsible for wages (and for
7242-415: The WPA. The WPA was largely shaped by Harry Hopkins , supervisor of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration and close adviser to Roosevelt. Both Roosevelt and Hopkins believed that the route to economic recovery and the lessened importance of the dole would be in employment programs such as the WPA. Hallie Flanagan , national director of the Federal Theatre Project , wrote that "for the first time in
SECTION 50
#17327654645157384-491: The White House at Roosevelt's request, though Louise eventually demanded a home of their own. Hopkins ended his long White House stay on December 21, 1943, moving with his wife to a Georgetown townhouse. In mid-1939, Hopkins was told that he had stomach cancer , and doctors performed an extensive operation that removed 75% of his stomach . What remained of Hopkins's stomach struggled to digest proteins and fat , and
7526-431: The White House at Roosevelt's request, though Louise eventually demanded a home of their own. Hopkins ended his long White House stay on December 21, 1943, moving with his wife to a Georgetown townhouse. In mid-1939, Hopkins was told that he had stomach cancer , and doctors performed an extensive operation that removed 75% of his stomach . What remained of Hopkins's stomach struggled to digest proteins and fat , and
7668-484: The administrator of the Lend-Lease program, under which the United States gave to Britain and Soviet Union, China , and other Allied nations food, oil, and materiel including warships, warplanes and weaponry. Repayment was primarily in the form of Allied military action against the enemy, as well as leases on army and naval bases in Allied territory used by American forces. Hopkins had a major voice in policy for
7810-426: The administrator of the Lend-Lease program, under which the United States gave to Britain and Soviet Union, China , and other Allied nations food, oil, and materiel including warships, warplanes and weaponry. Repayment was primarily in the form of Allied military action against the enemy, as well as leases on army and naval bases in Allied territory used by American forces. Hopkins had a major voice in policy for
7952-613: The age of 55. His body was cremated and his ashes interred in his former college town at the Hazelwood Cemetery in Grinnell, Iowa . There is a house on the Grinnell College campus named after him and his childhood home, with a plaque, is located at Sixth Avenue and Elm Street. West, Diana. "American Betrayal" =(2014) Harry Hopkins Harold Lloyd " Harry " Hopkins (August 17, 1890 – January 29, 1946)
8094-462: The agency gained Roosevelt's attention, and in 1932, he promoted Hopkins to the presidency of the agency. Hopkins and Eleanor Roosevelt began a long friendship, which strengthened his role in relief programs. In March 1933, Roosevelt summoned Hopkins to Washington as federal relief administrator. Convinced that paid work was psychologically more valuable than cash handouts, Hopkins sought to continue and expand New York State's work relief programs,
8236-462: The agency gained Roosevelt's attention, and in 1932, he promoted Hopkins to the presidency of the agency. Hopkins and Eleanor Roosevelt began a long friendship, which strengthened his role in relief programs. In March 1933, Roosevelt summoned Hopkins to Washington as federal relief administrator. Convinced that paid work was psychologically more valuable than cash handouts, Hopkins sought to continue and expand New York State's work relief programs,
8378-592: The agency grew enormously and absorbed the New York Heart Association . In 1931, New York Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt named R. H. Macy's department store president Jesse Straus as president of the Temporary Emergency Relief Administration (TERA). Straus named Hopkins, then unknown to Roosevelt, as TERA's executive director. His efficient administration of the initial $ 20 million outlay to
8520-414: The agency grew enormously and absorbed the New York Heart Association . In 1931, New York Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt named R. H. Macy's department store president Jesse Straus as president of the Temporary Emergency Relief Administration (TERA). Straus named Hopkins, then unknown to Roosevelt, as TERA's executive director. His efficient administration of the initial $ 20 million outlay to
8662-449: The agency's executive director. His successful leadership of the program earned the attention of then- New York Governor Roosevelt, who brought Hopkins into his federal administration after he won the 1932 presidential election . Hopkins enjoyed close relationships with President Roosevelt and First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt , and was considered a potential successor to the president until the late 1930s, when his health began to decline due to
SECTION 60
#17327654645158804-449: The agency's executive director. His successful leadership of the program earned the attention of then- New York Governor Roosevelt, who brought Hopkins into his federal administration after he won the 1932 presidential election . Hopkins enjoyed close relationships with President Roosevelt and First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt , and was considered a potential successor to the president until the late 1930s, when his health began to decline due to
8946-652: The assumption that only one worker per family would be permitted to work under the proposed program, this total of 5.15 million was further reduced by 1.6 million—the estimated number of workers who were members of families with two or more employable people. Thus, there remained a net total of 3.55 million workers in as many households for whom jobs were to be provided. The WPA reached its peak employment of 3,334,594 people in November 1938. To be eligible for WPA employment, an individual had to be an American citizen, 18 or older, able-bodied, unemployed, and certified as in need by
9088-582: The brunt of the war, Hopkins felt that American aid to the Soviets would hasten the war's conclusion. On August 10, 1943, he spoke about the USSR's decisive role in the war , saying that "Without Russia in the war, the Axis cannot be defeated in Europe, and the position of the United Nations becomes precarious. Similarly, Russia's post-war position in Europe will be a dominant one. With Germany crushed, there
9230-417: The brunt of the war, Hopkins felt that American aid to the Soviets would hasten the war's conclusion. On August 10, 1943, he spoke about the USSR's decisive role in the war , saying that "Without Russia in the war, the Axis cannot be defeated in Europe, and the position of the United Nations becomes precarious. Similarly, Russia's post-war position in Europe will be a dominant one. With Germany crushed, there
9372-595: The cases. Only 2 percent of the husbands had private employment. Of the 2,000 women, all were responsible for one to five additional people in the household. In rural Missouri, 60% of the WPA-employed women were without husbands (12% were single; 25% widowed; and 23% divorced, separated or deserted). Thus, only 40% were married and living with their husbands, but 59% of the husbands were permanently disabled, 17% were temporarily disabled, 13% were too old to work, and remaining 10% were either unemployed or disabled. Most of
9514-592: The cause of death was hemosiderosis due to hepatic iron accumulation from his many blood transfusions and iron supplements . James A. Halsted, a medical doctor, noted nutrition researcher, and the third husband of Franklin D. Roosevelt 's daughter Anna Roosevelt Halsted , concluded that "in light of all the available facts up to his death in 1946, it seems justifiable to speculate that he had non-tropical sprue or adult celiac disease (gluten enteropathy)." Hopkins died in New York City on January 29, 1946, at
9656-530: The cause of death was hemosiderosis due to hepatic iron accumulation from his many blood transfusions and iron supplements . James A. Halsted, a medical doctor, noted nutrition researcher, and the third husband of Franklin D. Roosevelt 's daughter Anna Roosevelt Halsted , concluded that "in light of all the available facts up to his death in 1946, it seems justifiable to speculate that he had non-tropical sprue or adult celiac disease (gluten enteropathy)." Hopkins died in New York City on January 29, 1946, at
9798-504: The cost of publication sponsored each book, the cost was anywhere from $ 5,000 to $ 10,000. In almost all cases, the book sales were able to reimburse their sponsors. Additionally, another important part of this project was to record oral histories to create archives such as the Slave Narratives and collections of folklore. These writers also participated in research and editorial services to other government agencies. This project
9940-681: The country that served an estimated eight million individuals. Directed by Nikolai Sokoloff , former principal conductor of the Cleveland Orchestra , the Federal Music Project employed over 16,000 musicians at its peak. Its purpose was to create jobs for unemployed musicians, It established new ensembles such as chamber groups, orchestras, choral units, opera units, concert bands, military bands, dance bands, and theater orchestras. They gave 131,000 performances and programs to 92 million people each week. The Federal Music Project performed plays and dances, as well as radio dramas. In addition,
10082-471: The country. The direct focus of the WPA projects changed with need. In 1935 priority projects were to improve infrastructure; roads, extension of electricity to rural areas, water conservation, sanitation and flood control. In 1936, as outlined in that year's Emergency Relief Appropriations Act , public facilities became a focus; parks and associated facilities, public buildings, utilities, airports, and transportation projects were funded. The following year saw
10224-475: The distribution of WPA project jobs as opposed to those of a supervisory and administrative nature politics plays only a minor in comparatively insignificant role." However those who were hired were reminded at election time that FDR created their job and the Republicans would take it away. The great majority voted accordingly. WPA projects were administered by the Division of Engineering and Construction and
10366-545: The distribution of surplus commodities, and school lunch projects. One construction project was the Merritt Parkway in Connecticut, the bridges of which were each designed as architecturally unique. In its eight-year run, the WPA built 325 firehouses and renovated 2,384 of them across the United States. The 20,000 miles of water mains, installed by their hand as well, contributed to increased fire protection across
10508-655: The entire State Department . Hopkins helped identify and sponsor numerous potential leaders, including Dwight D. Eisenhower . He continued to live in the White House and saw the President more often than any other advisor. In mid-1943, Hopkins faced a barrage of criticism from Republicans and the press that he had abused his position for personal profit. One Representative asserted that British media tycoon Lord Beaverbrook had given Hopkins's wife, Louise, $ 500,000 worth of emeralds, which Louise denied. Newspapers ran stories detailing sumptuous dinners that Hopkins attended while he
10650-598: The entire State Department . Hopkins helped identify and sponsor numerous potential leaders, including Dwight D. Eisenhower . He continued to live in the White House and saw the President more often than any other advisor. In mid-1943, Hopkins faced a barrage of criticism from Republicans and the press that he had abused his position for personal profit. One Representative asserted that British media tycoon Lord Beaverbrook had given Hopkins's wife, Louise, $ 500,000 worth of emeralds, which Louise denied. Newspapers ran stories detailing sumptuous dinners that Hopkins attended while he
10792-601: The eye, the ear, or the intellect—or all three." This project was directed by Holger Cahill , and in 1936 employment peaked at over 5,300 artists. The Arts Service Division created illustrations and posters for the WPA writers, musicians, and theaters. The Exhibition Division had public exhibitions of artwork from the WPA, and artists from the Art Teaching Division were employed in settlement houses and community centers to give classes to an estimated 50,000 children and adults. They set up over 100 art centers around
10934-545: The first manager of the Manzanar Relocation Center in California, a facility that, according to one insider, was “manned just about 100% by the WPA.” Drawing on experiences derived from New Deal era road building, he supervised the installation of such features as guard towers and spotlights. Then Secretary of Commerce Harry Hopkins praised his successor as WPA administrator, Howard O. Hunter , for
11076-537: The four years it was established, and introduced 100 new playwrights. Many performers later became successful in Hollywood including Orson Welles , John Houseman , Burt Lancaster , Joseph Cotten , Canada Lee , Will Geer , Joseph Losey , Virgil Thomson , Nicholas Ray , E.G. Marshall and Sidney Lumet . The Federal Theatre Project was the first project to end; it was terminated in June 1939 after Congress zeroed out
11218-564: The fourth child of four sons and one daughter of David Aldona and Anna ( née Pickett) Hopkins. His father, born in Bangor, Maine , ran a harness shop (after an erratic career as a salesman, prospector, storekeeper, and bowling-alley operator), but his real passion was bowling, and he eventually returned to it as a business. Anna Hopkins, born in Hamilton, Ontario , had moved at an early age to Vermillion, South Dakota , where she married David. She
11360-457: The fourth child of four sons and one daughter of David Aldona and Anna ( née Pickett) Hopkins. His father, born in Bangor, Maine , ran a harness shop (after an erratic career as a salesman, prospector, storekeeper, and bowling-alley operator), but his real passion was bowling, and he eventually returned to it as a business. Anna Hopkins, born in Hamilton, Ontario , had moved at an early age to Vermillion, South Dakota , where she married David. She
11502-567: The funding. This project was directed by Henry Alsberg and employed 6,686 writers at its peak in 1936. By January 1939, more than 275 major books and booklets had been published by the FWP. Most famously, the FWP created the American Guide Series , which produced thorough guidebooks for every state that include descriptions of towns, waterways, historic sites, oral histories, photographs, and artwork. An association or group that put up
11644-448: The ground helping with removal and relocation even before the creation of the WRA. On March 11, Rex L. Nicholson, the WPA's regional director, took charge of the “Reception and Induction” centers that controlled the first thirteen assembly centers. Nicholson's old WPA associates played key roles in the administration of the camps. WPA veterans involved in internment included Clayton E. Triggs,
11786-505: The introduction of agricultural improvements, such as the production of marl fertilizer and the eradication of fungus pests. As the Second World War approached, and then eventually began, WPA projects became increasingly defense related. One project of the WPA was funding state-level library service demonstration projects, to create new areas of library service to underserved populations and to extend rural service. Another project
11928-525: The largest program from 1933 to 1935, involved giving money to localities to operate work relief projects to employ those on direct relief. CWA was similar but did not require workers to be on relief to receive a government-sponsored job. In less than four months, the CWA hired four million people, and during its five months of operation, the CWA built and repaired 200 swimming pools, 3,700 playgrounds, 40,000 schools, 250,000 miles (400,000 km) of road, and 12 million feet of sewer pipe. The WPA, which followed
12070-525: The largest program from 1933 to 1935, involved giving money to localities to operate work relief projects to employ those on direct relief. CWA was similar but did not require workers to be on relief to receive a government-sponsored job. In less than four months, the CWA hired four million people, and during its five months of operation, the CWA built and repaired 200 swimming pools, 3,700 playgrounds, 40,000 schools, 250,000 miles (400,000 km) of road, and 12 million feet of sewer pipe. The WPA, which followed
12212-543: The late 1930s, Roosevelt appeared to be training him as a possible successor. With the advent of World War II in Europe, however, Roosevelt ran again in 1940 and won an unprecedented third term. On May 10, 1940, after a long night and day spent discussing the German invasion of the Netherlands , Belgium, and Luxembourg that had ended the so-called " Phoney War ," Roosevelt urged a tired Hopkins to stay for dinner and then
12354-431: The late 1930s, Roosevelt appeared to be training him as a possible successor. With the advent of World War II in Europe, however, Roosevelt ran again in 1940 and won an unprecedented third term. On May 10, 1940, after a long night and day spent discussing the German invasion of the Netherlands , Belgium, and Luxembourg that had ended the so-called " Phoney War ," Roosevelt urged a tired Hopkins to stay for dinner and then
12496-434: The local level, WPA libraries relied on funding from county or city officials or funds raised by local community organizations such as women's clubs. Due to limited funding, many WPA libraries were "little more than book distribution stations: tables of materials under temporary tents, a tenant home to which nearby readers came for their books, a school superintendents' home, or a crossroads general store." The public response to
12638-710: The main activity of the WPA Library Project. The basic rationale for this change was that the mending and repair projects saved public libraries and school libraries thousands of dollars in acquisition costs while employing needy women who were often heads of households. By 1940, the WPA Library Project, now the Library Services Program, began to shift its focus as the entire WPA began to move operations towards goals of national defense. WPA Library Programs served those goals in two ways: 1.) existing WPA libraries could distribute materials to
12780-412: The middle ranks to the very highest, including Stalin. Anastas Mikoyan was Hopkins' counterpart with responsibility for Lend-Lease . He often explained Roosevelt's plans to Stalin and other top Soviet officials to enlist Soviet support for American objectives, an endeavor that met with limited success. A particularly striking example of bad faith was Moscow's refusal to allow American naval experts to see
12922-412: The middle ranks to the very highest, including Stalin. Anastas Mikoyan was Hopkins' counterpart with responsibility for Lend-Lease . He often explained Roosevelt's plans to Stalin and other top Soviet officials to enlist Soviet support for American objectives, an endeavor that met with limited success. A particularly striking example of bad faith was Moscow's refusal to allow American naval experts to see
13064-598: The nation's African-American families were either on relief or were employed by the WPA. Civil rights leaders initially objected that African Americans were proportionally underrepresented. African American leaders made such a claim with respect to WPA hires in New Jersey, stating, "In spite of the fact that Blacks indubitably constitute more than 20 percent of the State's unemployed, they composed 15.9% of those assigned to W.P.A. jobs during 1937." Nationwide in 1940, 9.8% of
13206-659: The need, not only to maintain existing facilities but to expand library services led to the establishment of the WPA's Library Projects. With the onset of the Depression local governments facing declining revenues were unable to maintain social services, including libraries. This lack of revenue exacerbated problems of library access that were already widespread. In 1934 only two states, Massachusetts and Delaware, provided their total population access to public libraries. In many rural areas, there were no libraries, and where they did exist, reading opportunities were minimal. 66% of
13348-525: The night in a second-floor White House bedroom. Hopkins would live out of the bedroom for the next three-and-a-half years. On December 7, 1941, at 1:40 pm, Hopkins was in the Oval Study, in the White House , having lunch with President Roosevelt, when Roosevelt received the first report that Pearl Harbor had been attacked via phone from Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox . Initially, Hopkins
13490-401: The night in a second-floor White House bedroom. Hopkins would live out of the bedroom for the next three-and-a-half years. On December 7, 1941, at 1:40 pm, Hopkins was in the Oval Study, in the White House , having lunch with President Roosevelt, when Roosevelt received the first report that Pearl Harbor had been attacked via phone from Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox . Initially, Hopkins
13632-706: The one that placed its faith in them, thus fulfilling the founding vision of a government by and for its people. All its people. The goal of the WPA was to employ most of the unemployed people on relief until the economy recovered. Harry Hopkins testified to Congress in January 1935 why he set the number at 3.5 million, using Federal Emergency Relief Administration data. Estimating costs at $ 1,200 per worker per year ($ 26,668 in present-day terms), he asked for and received $ 4 billion ($ 88.9 billion in present-day terms). Many women were employed, but they were few compared to men. In 1935 there were 20 million people on relief in
13774-517: The population were African American. However, by 1941, the perception of discrimination against African Americans had changed to the point that the NAACP magazine Opportunity hailed the WPA: It is to the eternal credit of the administrative officers of the WPA that discrimination on various projects because of race has been kept to a minimum and that in almost every community Negroes have been given
13916-511: The profession for other work had employment not come through federal relief...the WPA subsidized several new ventures in readership services such as the widespread use of bookmobiles and supervised reading rooms – services that became permanent in post-depression and postwar American libraries." In extending library services to people who lost their libraries (or never had a library to begin with) WPA Library Services Projects achieved phenomenal success, made significant permanent gains, and had
14058-452: The public on the nature of an imminent national defense emergency and the need for national defense preparation, and 2.) the project could provide supplementary library services to military camps and defense impacted communities. By December 1941, the number of people employed in WPA library work was only 16,717. In May of the following year, all statewide Library Projects were reorganized as WPA War Information Services Programs. By early 1943,
14200-509: The readily available evidence, or to seek the judgement of the knowledgeable. He conducted policy vis-a-vis Stalin with mere dogmatic confidence in his own (and his circle's) unshakeable sentiments." In 1913, Hopkins married Ethel Gross (1886–1976), a Hungarian-Jewish immigrant active in New York City's Progressive movement . They had three sons: David, Robert, and Stephen, (they had lost an infant daughter to whooping cough) and though Gross divorced Hopkins in 1930 shortly before Hopkins became
14342-509: The readily available evidence, or to seek the judgement of the knowledgeable. He conducted policy vis-a-vis Stalin with mere dogmatic confidence in his own (and his circle's) unshakeable sentiments." In 1913, Hopkins married Ethel Gross (1886–1976), a Hungarian-Jewish immigrant active in New York City's Progressive movement . They had three sons: David, Robert, and Stephen, (they had lost an infant daughter to whooping cough) and though Gross divorced Hopkins in 1930 shortly before Hopkins became
14484-428: The relief experiments of this country the preservation of the skill of the worker, and hence the preservation of his self-respect, became important." The WPA was organized into the following divisions: These ordinary men and women proved to be extraordinary beyond all expectation. They were golden threads woven in the national fabric. In this, they shamed the political philosophy that discounted their value and rewarded
14626-506: The salaries of supervisors, who were not on relief). WPA sometimes took over state and local relief programs that had originated in the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) or Federal Emergency Relief Administration programs (FERA). It was liquidated on June 30, 1943, because of low unemployment during World War II. Robert D. Leininger asserted: "millions of people needed subsistence incomes. Work relief
14768-707: The spring of 1913, he accepted a position from John A. Kingsbury of the New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor (AICP) as a "friendly visitor" and superintendent of the Employment Bureau within the AICP's Department of Family Welfare. During the 1915 recession, Hopkins and the AICP's William Matthews, with $ 5,000 from Elizabeth Milbank Anderson 's Milbank Memorial Fund , organized
14910-409: The spring of 1913, he accepted a position from John A. Kingsbury of the New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor (AICP) as a "friendly visitor" and superintendent of the Employment Bureau within the AICP's Department of Family Welfare. During the 1915 recession, Hopkins and the AICP's William Matthews, with $ 5,000 from Elizabeth Milbank Anderson 's Milbank Memorial Fund , organized
15052-676: The time, any actions were taken specifically to help the American war effort and to prevent the Soviets from making a deal with Hitler. It is currently considered likely that Laurence Duggan was the titular agent "19" mentioned in the Venona Project decryptions of Soviet cables. Hopkins may simply have been naïve in his estimation of Soviet intentions. The historian Robert Conquest wrote that "Hopkins seems just to have accepted an absurdly fallacious stereotype of Soviet motivation, without making any attempt whatever to think, or to study
15194-557: The time, any actions were taken specifically to help the American war effort and to prevent the Soviets from making a deal with Hitler. It is currently considered likely that Laurence Duggan was the titular agent "19" mentioned in the Venona Project decryptions of Soviet cables. Hopkins may simply have been naïve in his estimation of Soviet intentions. The historian Robert Conquest wrote that "Hopkins seems just to have accepted an absurdly fallacious stereotype of Soviet motivation, without making any attempt whatever to think, or to study
15336-589: The vast $ 50 billion Lend-Lease program, especially regarding supplies, first for Britain and then, upon the German invasion, the Soviets. He went to Moscow in July 1941 to make personal contact with Joseph Stalin . Hopkins recommended and Roosevelt accepted the inclusion of the Soviets in Lend Lease. Hopkins made Lend Lease decisions in terms of Roosevelt's broad foreign policy goals. He accompanied Churchill to
15478-425: The vast $ 50 billion Lend-Lease program, especially regarding supplies, first for Britain and then, upon the German invasion, the Soviets. He went to Moscow in July 1941 to make personal contact with Joseph Stalin . Hopkins recommended and Roosevelt accepted the inclusion of the Soviets in Lend Lease. Hopkins made Lend Lease decisions in terms of Roosevelt's broad foreign policy goals. He accompanied Churchill to
15620-451: The vast and unparalleled New Deal propaganda network." Much of the criticism of the distribution of projects and funding allotment is a result of the view that the decisions were politically motivated. The South, despite being the poorest region of the United States, received 75% less in federal relief and public works funds per capita than the West. Critics would point to the fact that Roosevelt's Democrats could be sure of voting support from
15762-554: The women worked with sewing projects, where they were taught to use sewing machines and made clothing and bedding, as well as supplies for hospitals, orphanages, and adoption centers. One WPA-funded project, the Pack Horse Library Project , mainly employed women to deliver books to rural areas in eastern Kentucky. Many of the women employed by the project were the sole breadwinners for their families. The WPA had numerous critics. The strongest attacks were that it
15904-477: The work of closing war information centers had begun. The last week of service for remaining WPA library workers was March 15, 1943. While it is difficult to quantify the success or failure of WPA Library Projects relative to other WPA programs, "what is incontestable is the fact that the library projects provided much-needed employment for mostly female workers, recruited many to librarianship in at least semiprofessional jobs, and retained librarians who may have left
16046-672: The “building of those camps for the War Department for the Japanese evacuees on the West Coast.” The share of Federal Emergency Relief Administration and WPA benefits for African Americans exceeded their proportion of the general population. The FERA's first relief census reported that more than two million African Americans were on relief during early 1933, a proportion of the African-American population (17.8%) that
16188-470: Was an American statesman, public administrator, and presidential advisor. A trusted deputy to President Franklin Delano Roosevelt , Hopkins directed New Deal relief programs before serving as the eighth United States secretary of commerce from 1938 to 1940 and as Roosevelt's chief foreign policy advisor and liaison to Allied leaders during World War II . During his career, Hopkins supervised
16330-553: Was concerned with rural areas but increasingly focused on cities in the Great Depression . In the years after he resigned, Hopkins expressed pride in the WPA's key role in building internment camps for Japanese Americans. On March 19, 1942, for example, he lauded the then WPA head WPA, Howard O. Hunter , for the "building of those camps for War Department for the Japanese evacuees on the West Coast." Before Hopkins began to decline from his struggle with stomach cancer in
16472-486: Was concerned with rural areas but increasingly focused on cities in the Great Depression . In the years after he resigned, Hopkins expressed pride in the WPA's key role in building internment camps for Japanese Americans. On March 19, 1942, for example, he lauded the then WPA head WPA, Howard O. Hunter , for the "building of those camps for War Department for the Japanese evacuees on the West Coast." Before Hopkins began to decline from his struggle with stomach cancer in
16614-576: Was deeply religious and active in the affairs of the Methodist church. Shortly after Harry was born, the family moved successively to Council Bluffs, Iowa , and Kearney and Hastings, Nebraska . They spent two years in Chicago and finally settled in Grinnell, Iowa . Hopkins attended Grinnell College and soon after his graduation in 1912 took a job with Christodora House, a social settlement house in New York City 's Lower East Side ghetto . In
16756-466: Was deeply religious and active in the affairs of the Methodist church. Shortly after Harry was born, the family moved successively to Council Bluffs, Iowa , and Kearney and Hastings, Nebraska . They spent two years in Chicago and finally settled in Grinnell, Iowa . Hopkins attended Grinnell College and soon after his graduation in 1912 took a job with Christodora House, a social settlement house in New York City 's Lower East Side ghetto . In
16898-825: Was elected its president in 1923. In 1922, Hopkins returned to New York City, where the AICP was involved with the Milbank Memorial Fund and the State Charities Aid Association in running three health demonstrations in New York State. Hopkins became manager of the Bellevue-Yorkville health project and assistant director of the AICP. In mid-1924 he became executive director of the New York Tuberculosis Association. During his tenure,
17040-444: Was elected its president in 1923. In 1922, Hopkins returned to New York City, where the AICP was involved with the Milbank Memorial Fund and the State Charities Aid Association in running three health demonstrations in New York State. Hopkins became manager of the Bellevue-Yorkville health project and assistant director of the AICP. In mid-1924 he became executive director of the New York Tuberculosis Association. During his tenure,
17182-568: Was in intensive care at the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota. In 1963, the FBI concluded that Jordan "either lied for publicity and profit or was delusional." According to historian Sean McMeekin , in his recent book Stalin’s War (2021), “Many US lend-lease records, including the correspondence of Hopkins and Edward Stettinius Jr and the minutes of the Soviet protocol committee, were declassified in
17324-403: Was in intensive care at the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota. In 1963, the FBI concluded that Jordan "either lied for publicity and profit or was delusional." According to historian Sean McMeekin , in his recent book Stalin’s War (2021), “Many US lend-lease records, including the correspondence of Hopkins and Edward Stettinius Jr and the minutes of the Soviet protocol committee, were declassified in
17466-738: Was making public calls for sacrifice. Hopkins briefly considered suing the Chicago Tribune for libel after a story that compared him to Grigory Rasputin , the famous courtier of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia , but he was dissuaded by Roosevelt. Although Hopkins's health was steadily declining, Roosevelt sent him on additional trips to Europe in 1945. Hopkins attended the Yalta Conference in February 1945. He tried to resign after Roosevelt died, but President Harry S. Truman sent Hopkins on one more mission to Moscow. Hopkins met with Stalin in late May to secure reassurances on Soviet involvement in
17608-619: Was making public calls for sacrifice. Hopkins briefly considered suing the Chicago Tribune for libel after a story that compared him to Grigory Rasputin , the famous courtier of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia , but he was dissuaded by Roosevelt. Although Hopkins's health was steadily declining, Roosevelt sent him on additional trips to Europe in 1945. Hopkins attended the Yalta Conference in February 1945. He tried to resign after Roosevelt died, but President Harry S. Truman sent Hopkins on one more mission to Moscow. Hopkins met with Stalin in late May to secure reassurances on Soviet involvement in
17750-462: Was nearly double the proportion of white Americans on relief (9.5%). This was during the period of Jim Crow and racial segregation in the South, when black Americans were largely disenfranchised . By 1935, there were 3,500,000 African Americans (men, women and children) on relief, almost 35 percent of the African-American population; plus another 250,000 African-American adults were working on WPA projects. Altogether during 1938, about 45 percent of
17892-545: Was preferred over public assistance (the dole) because it maintained self-respect, reinforced the work ethic, and kept skills sharp." On May 6, 1935, FDR issued executive order 7034, establishing the Works Progress Administration. The WPA superseded the work of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration , which was dissolved. Direct relief assistance was permanently replaced by a national work relief program—a major public works program directed by
18034-501: Was pro-Soviet, but others thought that he was not. Verne W. Newton, the author of FDR and the Holocaust , said that no writer discussing Hopkins has identified any secrets disclosed or any decision in which he distorted American priorities to help communism. As Mark demonstrated, Hopkins was not pro-Soviet in his recommendations to Roosevelt; he was anti-German and pro-American. Any "secrets" disclosed were authorized. Mark says that at
18176-444: Was pro-Soviet, but others thought that he was not. Verne W. Newton, the author of FDR and the Holocaust , said that no writer discussing Hopkins has identified any secrets disclosed or any decision in which he distorted American priorities to help communism. As Mark demonstrated, Hopkins was not pro-Soviet in his recommendations to Roosevelt; he was anti-German and pro-American. Any "secrets" disclosed were authorized. Mark says that at
18318-443: Was reached in 1942 and appeared as a long-term national goal around 1944, was not the goal of the WPA; rather, it tried to supply one paid job for all families in which the breadwinner suffered long-term unemployment. In one of its most famous projects, Federal Project Number One , the WPA employed musicians, artists, writers, actors and directors in arts, drama, media, and literacy projects. The five projects dedicated to these were
18460-818: Was rejected for the draft because of a bad eye. Hopkins moved to New Orleans where he worked for the American Red Cross as director of Civilian Relief, Gulf Division. Eventually, the Gulf Division of the Red Cross merged with the Southwestern Division and Hopkins, headquartered now in Atlanta , was appointed general manager in 1921. Hopkins helped draft a charter for the American Association of Social Workers (AASW) and
18602-432: Was rejected for the draft because of a bad eye. Hopkins moved to New Orleans where he worked for the American Red Cross as director of Civilian Relief, Gulf Division. Eventually, the Gulf Division of the Red Cross merged with the Southwestern Division and Hopkins, headquartered now in Atlanta , was appointed general manager in 1921. Hopkins helped draft a charter for the American Association of Social Workers (AASW) and
18744-425: Was skeptical of the news until Chief of Naval Operations Adm. Harold Rainsford Stark called a few minutes later to confirm Pearl Harbor had in fact been attacked. During the war years, Hopkins acted as Roosevelt's chief emissary to British Prime Minister Winston Churchill . In January 1941, Roosevelt dispatched Hopkins to assess Britain's determination and situation. Churchill escorted the important visitor all over
18886-425: Was skeptical of the news until Chief of Naval Operations Adm. Harold Rainsford Stark called a few minutes later to confirm Pearl Harbor had in fact been attacked. During the war years, Hopkins acted as Roosevelt's chief emissary to British Prime Minister Winston Churchill . In January 1941, Roosevelt dispatched Hopkins to assess Britain's determination and situation. Churchill escorted the important visitor all over
19028-679: Was spent on highway, road, and street projects; more than $ 1 billion on public buildings, including the iconic Dock Street Theatre in Charleston, the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles, and Timberline Lodge in Oregon's Mount Hood National Forest . More than $ 1 billion—$ 20.7 billion today—was spent on publicly owned or operated utilities; and another $ 1 billion on welfare projects, including sewing projects for women,
19170-541: Was the Federal Project Number One , which had five different parts: the Federal Art Project , the Federal Music Project , the Federal Theatre Project , the Federal Writers' Project , and the Historical Records Survey . The government wanted to provide new federal cultural support instead of just providing direct grants to private institutions. After only one year, over 40,000 artists and other talented workers had been employed through this project in
19312-499: Was the Household Service Demonstration Project , which trained 30,000 women for domestic employment. South Carolina had one of the larger statewide library service demonstration projects. At the end of the project in 1943, South Carolina had twelve publicly funded county libraries, one regional library, and a funded state library agency. A significant aspect of the Works Progress Administration
19454-552: Was the prelude for a national political machine on behalf of Roosevelt. Reformers secured the Hatch Act of 1939 that largely depoliticized the WPA. Others complained that far left elements played a major role, especially in the New York City unit. Representative J. Parnell Thomas of the House Committee on Un-American Activities claimed in 1938 that divisions of the WPA were a "hotbed of Communists" and "one more link in
19596-448: Was the smallest of Federal Project Number One and served to identify, collect, and conserve United States' historical records. It is one of the biggest bibliographical efforts and was directed by Luther H. Evans. At its peak, this project employed more than 4,400 workers. Before the Great Depression, it was estimated that one-third of the population in the United States did not have reasonable access to public library services. Understanding
19738-409: Was to pay the local prevailing wage, but limit the hours of work to 8 hours a day or 40 hours a week; the stated minimum being 30 hours a week, or 120 hours a month. Being a voter or a Democrat was not a prerequisite for a relief job. Federal law specifically prohibited any political discrimination against WPA workers. Vague charges were bandied about at the time. The consensus of experts is that: "In
19880-456: Was to postpone the sentence of death the doctors had given him for five more years". Though his death has been attributed to his stomach cancer, some historians have suggested that it was the cumulative malnutrition related to his post-cancer digestive problems. Another suggestion is that Hopkins died from liver failure due to hepatitis or cirrhosis , but Robert Sherwood authoritatively reported that Hopkins' postmortem examination showed
20022-456: Was to postpone the sentence of death the doctors had given him for five more years". Though his death has been attributed to his stomach cancer, some historians have suggested that it was the cumulative malnutrition related to his post-cancer digestive problems. Another suggestion is that Hopkins died from liver failure due to hepatitis or cirrhosis , but Robert Sherwood authoritatively reported that Hopkins' postmortem examination showed
20164-583: Was viewed negatively by employers, who said they had formed poor work habits. Harry Hopkins Harold Lloyd " Harry " Hopkins (August 17, 1890 – January 29, 1946) was an American statesman, public administrator, and presidential advisor. A trusted deputy to President Franklin Delano Roosevelt , Hopkins directed New Deal relief programs before serving as the eighth United States secretary of commerce from 1938 to 1940 and as Roosevelt's chief foreign policy advisor and liaison to Allied leaders during World War II . During his career, Hopkins supervised
#514485