60-490: Betel ( Piper betle ) is a species of flowering plant in the pepper family Piperaceae , native to Southeast Asia. It is an evergreen, dioecious vine, with glossy heart-shaped leaves and white catkins . Betel plants are cultivated for their leaves which are most commonly used as flavoring in chewing areca nut . The term betel was derived from the Tamil/ Malayalam word vettila via Portuguese. Piper betle
120-505: A phenylpropene , 4-allyl resorcinol and a diketosteroid stigmast-4-en-3,6-dione. Its essential oil consists of 50 different compounds, of which major components are eugenol, caryophyllene, terpinolene , terpinene , cadinene , and 3-carene . Betel vines are cultivated throughout southeast Asia, in plots typically 20 to 2,000 square metres (0.005 to 0.5 acre) in size. Malaysian farmers cultivate four types of betel plants: sirih India, sirih Melayu, sirih Cina and sirih Udang. The harvest
180-596: A slippery slope scenario in his style guide that, "if we do end by casting aside the AD/BC convention, almost certainly some will argue that we ought to cast aside as well the conventional numbering system [that is, the method of numbering years] itself, given its Christian basis." Some Christians are offended by the removal of the reference to Jesus, including the Southern Baptist Convention . The abbreviation BCE, just as with BC, always follows
240-508: A book by Johannes Kepler as the Latin : annus aerae nostrae vulgaris ( year of our common era ), and to 1635 in English as " Vulgar Era". The term "Common Era" can be found in English as early as 1708, and became more widely used in the mid-19th century by Jewish religious scholars. Since the late 20th century, BCE and CE have become popular in academic and scientific publications on
300-446: A garden called a barouj in which to grow betel. The barouj is fenced with bamboo sticks and coconut leaves. The soil is plowed into furrows of 10 to 15 m length, 75 cm in width and 75 cm depth. Oil cakes , manure , and leaves are thoroughly incorporated with the topsoil of the furrows and wood ash . The cuttings are planted at the beginning of the monsoon season. Proper shade and irrigation are essential for
360-627: A large number of them focusing especially on the active ingredient Piperine and related compounds found in many members of this family, especially Black pepper , Long pepper and Betel , as well as kavalactones found in Kava . Common era Common Era ( CE ) and Before the Common Era ( BCE ) are year notations for the Gregorian calendar (and its predecessor, the Julian calendar ),
420-567: A matter of convenience. There is so much interaction between people of different faiths and cultures – different civilizations, if you like – that some shared way of reckoning time is a necessity. And so the Christian Era has become the Common Era. Adena K. Berkowitz, in her application to argue before the United States Supreme Court , opted to use BCE and CE because, "Given the multicultural society that we live in,
480-715: A period of 138 years in which the traditional BC/AD dating notation was used. BCE/CE is used by the College Board in its history tests, and by the Norton Anthology of English Literature . Others have taken a different approach. The US-based History Channel uses BCE/CE notation in articles on non-Christian religious topics such as Jerusalem and Judaism . The 2006 style guide for the Episcopal Diocese Maryland Church News says that BCE and CE should be used. In June 2006, in
540-972: A potential mutagenic role for betel leaf in causing oral cancers, subsequent studies invalidated it by isolating compounds ( eugenol and hydroxychavicol ) in betel leaf that have anti-mutagenic roles. These compounds were also found to reduce the carcinogenic burden imposed by tobacco and areca nut. Hydroxychavicol is found to demonstrate anti-prostate cancer efficacy in an in vitro (human prostate cancer cells) and in vivo ( BALB/c nude mice) study. Assessment tools for betel-quid chewing have been developed to address its complex behavioral and cultural aspects. The Reasons for Betel-quid Chewing Scale (RBCS) identifies key motivational factors driving its use, offering insight into users' reasons for chewing. Although various scales exist to measure betel quid dependency, more comprehensive and validated tools are still needed to assess this dependency effectively across different populations. The Self-Rating Screening Test for Areca Abusers (SSTAA)
600-491: A single pistil per flower, which is 1 or 3-4 carpellate . The ovary is 1 locular, and superior. Fruits are drupelike , with a single seed per fruit. The seeds have a minute embryo , and mealy perisperm . Numerous members of the Piperaceae family are used in the traditional medicinal systems of indigenous population for a wide variety of illnesses. Many studies have been undertaken to investigate these uses, with
660-584: A wholesaler in lots of 1,000 leaves. According to a report published by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), a successful betel farm in Sri Lanka can provide a supplemental income to a farmer by providing six days of work every six months and net income when the leaf prices are attractive. The FAO study found the successful farm's yield to be 18,000 leaves per 150 square feet (14 m). The additional salary and income to
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#1732787700068720-480: Is a direct reference to Jesus as Lord . Proponents of the Common Era notation assert that the use of BCE/CE shows sensitivity to those who use the same year numbering system as the one that originated with and is currently used by Christians , but who are not themselves Christian. Former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan has argued: [T]he Christian calendar no longer belongs exclusively to Christians. People of all faiths have taken to using it simply as
780-400: Is designed to detect betel quid abuse by evaluating psychosocial dysfunction and craving. Betel Year is a metric introduced to quantify lifetime exposure to betel quid chewing. This is an initial pilot effort with calls for further research to explore the carcinogenic potential of other additives and to refine the metric for broader application. Chemistry of betel leaf varies geographically and
840-485: Is in particularly common use in Nepal in order to disambiguate dates from the local calendar, Bikram or Vikram Sambat. Disambiguation is needed because the era of the local calendar is quite close to the Common Era. In 2002, an advisory panel for the religious education syllabus for England and Wales recommended introducing BCE/CE dates to schools, and by 2018 some local education authorities were using them. In 2018,
900-462: Is more popular. In India and Sri Lanka , a sheaf of betel leaves is traditionally offered as a mark of respect and auspicious beginnings. Occasions include greeting elders at wedding ceremonies, celebrating the New Year, and offering payment to physicians and astrologers, to whom money and/or areca nut, placed on top of the sheaf of leaves, are offered in thanks for blessings. In Bengali weddings,
960-648: Is mostly chavibetol dominant. Safrole is a major component of Sri Lankan Piper betle . Eugenol , isoeugenol , and germacrene D are other dominant compounds in other chemotypes. Leaves also contain eugenol , chavicol , hydroxychavicol , and caryophyllene . Stems contain phytosterols ( β-sitosterol , β-daucosterol , stigmasterol etc.), alkaloids ( piperine , pellitorine , piperdardine , guineensine etc.), lignan ( pinoresinol ) and other components. Some of them are oleanolic acid , dehydropipernonaline, piperolein-B, bornyl cis -4-hydroxycinnamate and bornyl p -coumarate. Roots contain aristololactam A-II,
1020-568: Is originally native to Southeast Asia, from India , Philippines , Timor-Leste and Indonesia and Peninsular Malaysia to Indochina , Vietnam , Cambodia , Laos , Thailand , and Myanmar . Its cultivation has spread along with the Austronesian migrations and trade to other parts of Island Southeast Asia , Papua New Guinea and Melanesia , Micronesia , South Asia , the Maldives , Mauritius , Réunion Island , and Madagascar . It
1080-572: Is sister to the other four genera in the family. Verhuellia Miquel 1843 (three species) Zippelia Blume 1830 (one species) Manekia Trelease 1927 (six species) Piper Linnaeus 1753 (about 2,000 species) Peperomia Ruiz & Pavon 1794 (over 1,000 species) Members of pepper family are small trees, shrubs, or perennial or annual herbs. Plants are often rhizomatous , and can be terrestrial or epiphytic . The stems can be either simple or branched. Leaves are simple with entire margins, and are positioned at
1140-655: Is the main source of income for farmers, a total of 2,825 hectares of land is dedicated to betel vine farming. The average production costs for these betel farms in Bangladesh are about Tk 300,000 per hectare ($ 4,000 per hectare, $ 16 per decimal). The farm owners can earn a profit of over Tk 100,000 per hectare ($ 1,334 per hectare, $ 5.34 per decimal). In India, a 2006 research reported betel vines being cultivated on about 55,000 hectares of farmland, with an annual production worth of about IN Rs. 9000 million ($ 200 million total, averaging $ 1,455 per acre). The betel farming industry,
1200-403: Is then sold in bundles of leaves, each bundle costing in 2011 between MYR 0.30 and 0.50 ($ 0.07 and $ 0.12). In Sri Lanka, betel is grown all over the country. Commercial production of betel, with bigger leaves with dark green colour combined with thickness, known as “kalu bulath”, is confined to a few districts, such as Kurunagala , Gampaha , Kegalle , Kalutara and Colombo . These are sold at
1260-458: The Duyong Cave archaeological site. It spread along with the Austronesian migrations to the rest of Southeast Asia , Taiwan , South China , and South Asia . It is unknown when or why betel leaves were first combined with areca nuts, since areca nuts can be chewed alone. While the practice of chewing Betel leaf existed even before the common era , with attested references from at least
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#17327877000681320-599: The Gregorian calendar without the AD prefix. As early as 1825, the abbreviation VE (for Vulgar Era) was in use among Jews to denote years in the Western calendar. As of 2005 , Common Era notation has also been in use for Hebrew lessons for more than a century. Jews have also used the term Current Era . Some academics in the fields of theology , education , archaeology and history have adopted CE and BCE notation despite some disagreement. A study conducted in 2014 found that
1380-723: The National Trust said it would continue to use BC/AD as its house style. English Heritage explains its era policy thus: "It might seem strange to use a Christian calendar system when referring to British prehistory, but the BC/AD labels are widely used and understood." Some parts of the BBC use BCE/CE, but some presenters have said they will not. As of October 2019, the BBC News style guide has entries for AD and BC, but not for CE or BCE. The style guide for The Guardian says, under
1440-614: The date of birth of Jesus . Since the year numbers are the same, BCE and CE dates should be equally offensive to other religions as BC and AD. Roman Catholic priest and writer on interfaith issues Raimon Panikkar argued that the BCE/CE usage is the less inclusive option since they are still using the Christian calendar numbers and forcing it on other nations. In 1993, the English-language expert Kenneth G. Wilson speculated
1500-421: The mouth, tonsils, and throat . Attempts have been made to confirm the carcinogenic / mutagenic of betel quid or its ingredients. Betel leaf extract alone has not been shown to cause adverse effects. Smokeless tobacco products have been shown to exhibit mutagenic and carcinogenic behavior. A scientific study from Japan found that lab rats that ate a mixture of betel leaf and areca nuts had severe thickening of
1560-614: The pepper family , are a large family of flowering plants . The group contains roughly 3,600 currently accepted species in five genera. The vast majority of species can be found within the two main genera: Piper (2,171 species) and Peperomia (over 1,000 species). Members of the Piperaceae may be small trees, shrubs, or herbs. The distribution of this group is best described as pantropical . The best-known species, Piper nigrum , yields most peppercorns that are used as spices, including black pepper , although its relatives in
1620-402: The 3rd century CE, the ingredient mix (paan/ betel quid) it was chewed with changed over time. Areca nut , Calcium hydroxide and catechu were the historic ingredients, as referenced in texts from 9th century CE. Tobacco started to feature in the 20th century. The practice of chewing betel leaf is on the decline, and now quid consisting of tobacco, areca nut, and limewater , known as gutka ,
1680-596: The BCE/CE notation is not growing at the expense of BC and AD notation in the scholarly literature, and that both notations are used in a relatively stable fashion. In 2011, media reports suggested that the BC/AD notation in Australian school textbooks would be replaced by BCE/CE notation. The change drew opposition from some politicians and church leaders. Weeks after the story broke, the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority denied
1740-579: The Christian Era, it was sometimes qualified, e.g., "common era of the Incarnation", "common era of the Nativity", or "common era of the birth of Christ". An adapted translation of Common Era into Latin as Era Vulgaris was adopted in the 20th century by some followers of Aleister Crowley , and thus the abbreviation "e.v." or "EV" may sometimes be seen as a replacement for AD. Although Jews have their own Hebrew calendar , they often use
1800-495: The Gregorian Calendar as BCE and CE without compromising their own beliefs about the divinity of Jesus of Nazareth." In History Today , Michael Ostling wrote: "BC/AD Dating: In the year of whose Lord? The continuing use of AD and BC is not only factually wrong but also offensive to many who are not Christians." Critics note the fact that there is no difference in the epoch of the two systems—chosen to be close to
1860-468: The Latin term anno aerae nostrae vulgaris may be that in a 1615 book by Johannes Kepler . Kepler uses it again, as ab Anno vulgaris aerae , in a 1616 table of ephemerides , and again, as ab anno vulgaris aerae , in 1617. A 1635 English edition of that book has the title page in English that may be the earliest-found use of Vulgar Era in English. A 1701 book edited by John Le Clerc includes
Betel - Misplaced Pages Continue
1920-607: The Middle East, Europe, and the Americas. Betel is grown and cultivated as an important crop in rural Bangladesh. The primary use of betel leaf is as a wrapper for the chewing of areca nut , or in modern times, tobacco , where it is mainly used to add flavour. The practice originated in the Philippines around 5,000 years ago, where the oldest remains of areca nuts and calcium from crushed sea shells have been found in
1980-592: The Sri Lankan betel grower, assuming he or she provides all needed labor and keeps all net profit, is SL Rs. 1635 per 150 square feet (14 m) of betel farm every 6 months ($ 90 per " decimal " per year, or $ 9000 per acre per year). If the farmer hires outside labor to tend the betel vines and harvest the crop, the net income to the betel farm owner was SL Rs. 735 per 150 square feet (14 m) of betel farm every six months ($ 40 per decimal per year, or $ 4000 per acre per year). The market prices for betel leaves vary with
2040-625: The United States, the Kentucky State School Board reversed its decision to use BCE and CE in the state's new Program of Studies, leaving education of students about these concepts a matter of local discretion. The use of CE in Jewish scholarship was historically motivated by the desire to avoid the implicit "Our Lord" in the abbreviation AD . Although other aspects of dating systems are based in Christian origins, AD
2100-506: The base of the plant or along the stem, and can be alternate, opposite, or whorled in arrangement. Stipules are usually present, as are petioles . The leaves are often noticeably aromatic when crushed. Inflorescences (in the form of spikes) are terminal, opposite the leaves, or located in the axils. Flowers are bisexual, with no perianth , each flower is subtended by a peltate bract . Stamens are 2–6, and hypogynous , with 2-locular anthers . There are usually 3-4 stigmas attached to
2160-481: The bride is brought to the groom, seated on a platform and her face covered in betel leaves. In Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands , the inflorescence stalk of the betel tree, known as daka or "mustard stick", is consumed together with the leaves. It may also be used in cooking, usually raw, for its peppery taste. Use of binlang , or betel, has over a 300-year history in areas of China, where it
2220-511: The column of the table in which he introduced the new era as " Anni Domini Nostri Jesu Christi " (Of the year of our Lord Jesus Christ]. This way of numbering years became more widespread in Europe with its use by Bede in England in 731. Bede also introduced the practice of dating years before what he supposed was the year of birth of Jesus, without a year zero . In 1422, Portugal became
2280-489: The date that he believed to be the date of birth of Jesus , was conceived around the year 525 by the Christian monk Dionysius Exiguus . He did this to replace the then dominant Era of Martyrs system, because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians. He numbered years from an initial reference date (" epoch "), an event he referred to as the Incarnation of Jesus. Dionysius labeled
2340-498: The demand for betel leaves has been dropping in India due to acceptance of gutkha (chewing tobacco) by consumers over betel leaf-based ‘‘paan’’ preparation. The report cites betel leaf trading has dropped by 65% from 2000 to 2010 and created an oversupply. As a result, the report claims Indian farmers do not find betel farming lucrative anymore. Piperaceae The Piperaceae ( / ˌ p ɪ p ə ˈ r eɪ ʃ iː / ), also known as
2400-519: The early 20th century. The phrase "common era", in lower case , also appeared in the 19th century in a "generic" sense, not necessarily to refer to the Christian Era, but to any system of dates in common use throughout a civilization. Thus, "the common era of the Jews", "the common era of the Mahometans", "common era of the world", "the common era of the foundation of Rome". When it did refer to
2460-428: The entry for CE/BCE: "some people prefer CE (common era, current era, or Christian era) and BCE (before common era, etc.) to AD and BC, which, however, remain our style". In the United States, the use of the BCE/CE notation in textbooks was reported in 2005 to be growing. Some publications have transitioned to using it exclusively. For example, the 2007 World Almanac was the first edition to switch to BCE/CE, ending
Betel - Misplaced Pages Continue
2520-588: The family include many other spices. The family Piperaceae is unrelated to the family Solanaceae , which includes bell peppers and chili peppers , which are so named due to Europeans taking part in the Columbian exchange mistakenly believing the spicy fruits were a variety of the black pepper plant. The name Piperaceae is derived from the Sanskrit term pippali , Sanskrit : पिप्पलि . The APG III system of 2009 recognizes this family, and assigns it to
2580-453: The first of which was but eight days", and also refers to the common era as a synonym for vulgar era with "the fact that our Lord was born on the 4th year before the vulgar era, called Anno Domini, thus making (for example) the 42d year from his birth to correspond with the 38th of the common era". The Catholic Encyclopedia (1909) in at least one article reports all three terms (Christian, Vulgar, Common Era) being commonly understood by
2640-485: The grounds that BCE and CE are religiously neutral terms. They have been promoted as more sensitive to non-Christians by not referring to Jesus , the central figure of Christianity , especially via the religious terms " Christ " and Dominus ("Lord") used by the other abbreviations. Nevertheless, its epoch remains the same as that used for the Anno Domini era. The idea of numbering years beginning from
2700-434: The growth of the betel. In three to six months, the vines reach 150 to 180 cm in height, and they will branch. Harvest begins with the farmer plucking the leaf and its petiole with his right thumb. The harvest lasts 15 days to one month. The betel plant has made its way to research labs of many Bangladesh chemical and food nutrition companies. The harvested leaves are consumed locally and exported to other parts of Asia,
2760-646: The highest for those using any form of tobacco. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and the World Health Organization (WHO) accept the scientific evidence that chewing tobacco and areca nut is carcinogenic to humans. As with chewing tobacco , chewing betel quid with tobacco and areca nut is discouraged by preventive healthcare efforts. Reports suggest that betel leaf by itself has beneficial effects, in part because of its anti-mutagenic effects against mutagens (tobacco and areca nut) in betel quid. While earlier studies hypothesized
2820-459: The last Western European country to switch to the system begun by Dionysius. The term "Common Era" is traced back in English to its appearance as " Vulgar Era" to distinguish years of the Anno Domini era, which was in popular use, from dates of the regnal year (the year of the reign of a sovereign) typically used in national law. (The word 'vulgar' originally meant 'of the ordinary people', with no derogatory associations. ) The first use of
2880-468: The order Piperales in the unranked clade magnoliids . The family consists of five genera: Piper , Peperomia , Zippelia , Manekia , and Verhuellia . The previously recognised Pacific genus Macropiper , was recently merged into Piper . A tentative cladogram showing relationships based on Wanke et al. (2007) is shown below. This phylogeny was based on 6,000 base pairs of chloroplast DNA. Only recently has it become clear that Verhuellia
2940-496: The phrase "Before Christ according to the Vulgar Æra, 6". The Merriam Webster Dictionary gives 1716 as the date of first use of the term "vulgar era" (which it defines as Christian era). The first published use of "Christian Era" may be the Latin phrase annus aerae christianae on the title page of a 1584 theology book, De Eucharistica controuersia . In 1649, the Latin phrase annus æræ Christianæ appeared in
3000-553: The phrase "before the common era" may be that in a 1770 work that also uses common era and vulgar era as synonyms, in a translation of a book originally written in German. The 1797 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica uses the terms vulgar era and common era synonymously. In 1835, in his book Living Oracles , Alexander Campbell , wrote: "The vulgar Era, or Anno Domini; the fourth year of Jesus Christ,
3060-484: The report claims, supports about 400,000 – 500,000 agricultural families. A March 2011 report claims that betel farming is on a decline in India. While in ideal conditions some farms may gross annual incomes after expenses of over IN Rs. 26,000 per 10 decimal farm ($ 5,780 per acre), a betel farm's income is highly erratic from year to year, due to varying rainfall patterns, temperature, and spoilage rates of 35% to 70% during transport over poor infrastructure. Simultaneously,
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#17327877000683120-595: The rumours and stated that the BC/AD notation would remain, with CE and BCE as an optional suggested learning activity. In 2013, the Canadian Museum of Civilization (now the Canadian Museum of History) in Gatineau (opposite Ottawa ), which had previously switched to BCE/CE, decided to change back to BC/AD in material intended for the public while retaining BCE/CE in academic content. The notation
3180-423: The successful cultivation of this crop. Betel needs constantly moist soil, but there should not be excessive moisture. Irrigation is frequent and light, and standing water should not remain for more than half an hour. Dried leaves and wood ash are applied to the furrows at fortnightly intervals and cow dung slurry is sprinkled. Application of different kinds of leaves at monthly intervals is believed advantageous for
3240-417: The title of an English almanac. A 1652 ephemeris may be the first instance found so far of the English use of "Christian Era". The English phrase "Common Era" appears at least as early as 1708, and in a 1715 book on astronomy it is used interchangeably with "Christian Era" and "Vulgar Era". A 1759 history book uses common æra in a generic sense, to refer to "the common era of the Jews". The first use of
3300-497: The traditional Jewish designations – B.C.E. and C.E. – cast a wider net of inclusion." In the World History Encyclopedia , Joshua J. Mark wrote "Non-Christian scholars, especially, embraced [CE and BCE] because they could now communicate more easily with the Christian community. Jewish, Islamic, Hindu and Buddhist scholars could retain their [own] calendar but refer to events using
3360-408: The upper digestive tract, whereas after a diet of betel leaves alone, only one laboratory rat developed a forestomach papilloma . Multiple studies demonstrate that betel quid without added tobacco also causes esophageal cancer, and in some instances, liver cancer. In a cancer diagnosis patterns study with patients that chewed betel quid with different ingredient combinations, the risk was found to be
3420-418: The wet and dry seasons in Sri Lanka, and in 2010 averaged SL Rs. 200–400 per 1,000 leaves ($ 1.82 to $ 3.64 per 1000 leaves). The FAO study assumes no losses from erratic weather and no losses during storage and transportation of perishable betel leaves. These losses are usually between 35% and 70%. In Bangladesh, betel leaf farming yields vary by region and vine variety. In one region where betel leaf cultivation
3480-423: The world's most widely used calendar era . Common Era and Before the Common Era are alternatives to the original Anno Domini (AD) and Before Christ (BC) notations used for the same calendar era. The two notation systems are numerically equivalent: "2024 CE" and "AD 2024" each describe the current year; "400 BCE" and "400 BC" are the same year. The expression can be traced back to 1615, when it first appears in
3540-589: Was introduced during the Colonial Era to the Caribbean by Indian indentured immigrants . The betel leaf is cultivated mostly in South and Southeast Asia, from India to Papua New Guinea . It needs a compatible tree or a long pole for support. Betel requires well-drained fertile soil. Waterlogged, saline and alkali soils are unsuitable for its cultivation. In Bangladesh , farmers called barui prepare
3600-418: Was once promoted for medicinal use. Epidemiological studies demonstrate a close association between the incidence of cancer in India and the chewing of betel quid containing tobacco, areca nut, limewater and betel leaf. Chewing paan (betel quid) is strongly associated with a higher risk of developing head and neck cancer , as well as oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (OPSCC) , a form of cancer that affects
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