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123-473: Bengkayang is in northern West Kalimantan, sharing a border with Sarawak in Malaysia . With arable land and favourable relief, the agricultural sector is the main economic source. Bengkayang is also rich in natural resources. Bengkayang is still lagging in term of economic development, but there is a hope that providing local autonomy will catalyze development. A water processing plant has been developed, so

246-432: A tropical rainforest climate (Af) with heavy rainfall year-round. 1°04′09″N 109°39′50″E  /  1.0691°N 109.6639°E  / 1.0691; 109.6639 Sarawak Sarawak ( / s ə ˈ r ɑː w ɒ k / sə- RAH -wok , Malay: [saˈrawaʔ] ) is a state of Malaysia . The largest among the 13 states, with an area almost equal to that of Peninsular Malaysia , Sarawak

369-742: A clamp-down by the colonial government. On 27 May 1961, Tunku Abdul Rahman , the prime minister of the Federation of Malaya , announced a plan to form a greater federation together with Singapore , Sarawak , North Borneo and Brunei , to be called Malaysia. On 17 January 1962, the Cobbold Commission was formed to gauge the support of Sarawak and Sabah for the plan; the Commission reported 80 per cent support for federation. On 23 October 1962, five political parties in Sarawak formed

492-534: A headman (known as ketua kampung or penghulu ) for each village. There are a total of 26 sub-districts in Sarawak all under the jurisdiction of the Sarawak Ministry of Local Government and Community Development. The list of divisions, districts, sub-districts and their local authorities is shown in the table below: Kuching South City Council Padawan Municipal Council Sibu Rural District Council The first paramilitary armed forces in Sarawak,

615-629: A large loss of Amazonian rainforest around 2050 due to drought , forest dieback and the subsequent release of more carbon dioxide. Tropical rainforests provide timber as well as animal products such as meat and hides. Rainforests also have value as tourism destinations and for the ecosystem services provided. Many foods originally came from tropical forests, and are still mostly grown on plantations in regions that were formerly primary forest. Also, plant-derived medicines are commonly used for fever, fungal infections, burns, gastrointestinal problems, pain, respiratory problems, and wound treatment. At

738-577: A largely symbolic position appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (King of Malaysia) on the advice of the Malaysian federal government. The position has been held by Wan Junaidi Tuanku Jaafar since 2024. The TYT appoints the Premier , currently held by Abang Johari Openg ( GPS ), as the head of government . Generally, the leader of the party that commands the majority of the state Legislative Assembly

861-490: A moist layer of leaf litter, the presence of epiphytes and lianas and the absence of wildfire. The largest areas of rainforest are tropical or temperate rainforests, but other vegetation associations including subtropical rainforest , littoral rainforest , cloud forest , vine thicket and even dry rainforest have been described. Tropical rainforests are characterized by a warm and wet climate with no substantial dry season: typically found within 10 degrees north and south of

984-423: A more open canopy layer than other rainforests, and are found in areas of lower rainfall (630–1,100 mm (25–43 in)). They generally have two layers of trees. A tropical rainforest typically has a number of layers, each with different plants and animals adapted for life in that particular area. Examples include the emergent, canopy , understory and forest floor layers. The emergent layer contains

1107-725: A number of them being studied for medicinal properties. Mangrove and nipah forests lining its estuaries comprise 2% of its forested area, peat swamp forests along other parts of its coastline cover 16%, Kerangas forest covers 5% and Dipterocarpaceae forests cover most mountainous areas. The major trees found in estuary forests include bako and nibong , while those in the peat swamp forests include ramin ( Gonystylus bancanus ), meranti ( Shorea ), and medang jongkong ( Dactylocladus stenostachys ). Animal species are also highly varied, with 185 species of mammals, 530 species of birds, 166 species of snakes, 104 species of lizards, and 113 species of amphibians, of which 19 per cent of

1230-793: A regiment formed by the Brooke regime in 1862, were known as the Sarawak Rangers . The regiment, renowned for its jungle tracking skills, served in the campaign to end the intertribal wars in Sarawak. It also engaged in guerrilla warfare against the Japanese, in the Malayan Emergency (in West Malaysia) and the Sarawak Communist Insurgency against the communists. Following the formation of Malaysia,

1353-576: A requirement that the Sarawak Chief Minister be consulted prior to the appointment of the chief judge of the Sarawak High Court, the existence of Native Courts in Sarawak and the power to levy sales tax. Natives in Sarawak enjoy special privileges such as quotas and employment in public service, scholarships, university placements, and business permits. Local governments in Sarawak are exempt from local council laws enacted by

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1476-606: A restricted range of wild animals in the jungles but should not possess more than 5 kg (11 lb) of meat. The Sarawak Forest Department was established in 1919 to conserve forest resources in the state. Following international criticism of the logging industry in Sarawak, the state government decided to downsize the Sarawak Forest Department and created the Sarawak Forestry Corporation in 1995. The Sarawak Biodiversity Centre

1599-513: A small net impact on atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, though they may have other climatic effects (on cloud formation, for example, by recycling water vapour ). No rainforest today can be considered to be undisturbed. Human-induced deforestation plays a significant role in causing rainforests to release carbon dioxide, as do other factors, whether human-induced or natural, which result in tree death, such as burning and drought. Some climate models operating with interactive vegetation predict

1722-407: A small number of very large trees called emergents , which grow above the general canopy , reaching heights of 45–55 m, although on occasion a few species will grow to 70–80 m tall. They need to be able to withstand the hot temperatures and strong winds that occur above the canopy in some areas. Eagles , butterflies , bats and certain monkeys inhabit this layer. The canopy layer contains

1845-716: A study by Colin Turnbull , The Forest People , in 1962. Pygmies who live in Southeast Asia are, amongst others, referred to as " Negrito ". There are many tribes in the rainforests of the Malaysian state of Sarawak. Sarawak is part of Borneo, the third largest island in the world. Some of the other tribes in Sarawak are: the Kayan, Kenyah, Kejaman, Kelabit, Punan Bah, Tanjong, Sekapan, and the Lahanan. Collectively, they are referred to as Dayaks or Orangulu which means "people of

1968-437: A trend towards declining populations in rainforests, for example, reptiles that feed on amphibians and reptiles. This trend requires close monitoring. The seasonality of rainforests affects the reproductive patterns of amphibians, and this in turn can directly affect the species of reptiles that feed on these groups, particularly species with specialized feeding, since these are less likely to use alternative resources. Despite

2091-595: A united front that supported the formation of Malaysia. Sarawak was officially granted self-government on 22 July 1963, and federated with Malaya, North Borneo (now Sabah ), and Singapore to form the Federation of Malaysia on 16 September 1963. The governments of the Philippines and Indonesia opposed the new federation, as did the Brunei People's Party and Sarawak-based communist groups, and in 1962,

2214-436: A very broad array of fauna , including mammals , reptiles , amphibians , birds and invertebrates . Mammals may include primates , felids and other families. Reptiles include snakes , turtles , chameleons and other families; while birds include such families as vangidae and Cuculidae . Dozens of families of invertebrates are found in rainforests. Fungi are also very common in rainforest areas as they can feed on

2337-503: Is abundant. Many seedlings that will grow to the canopy level are present in the understory. Only about 5% of the sunlight shining on the rainforest canopy reaches the understory. This layer can be called a shrub layer , although the shrub layer may also be considered a separate layer. The forest floor , the bottom-most layer, receives only 2% of the sunlight. Only plants adapted to low light can grow in this region. Away from riverbanks , swamps and clearings, where dense undergrowth

2460-487: Is appointed as the chief minister; democratically elected representatives are known as state assemblymen. The state assembly passes laws on subjects that are not under the jurisdiction of the Parliament of Malaysia such as land administration, employment, forests, immigration, merchant shipping and fisheries. The state government is constituted by the premier, the cabinet ministers and their deputy ministers. To protect

2583-492: Is ethnically, culturally, religiously and linguistically diverse; ethnic groups including Iban, Chinese, Malay, Bidayuh, Melanau, Orang Ulu, Indian, Eurasian and Kedayan. English and Malay are the two official languages of the state; there is no official religion. The generally-accepted explanation of the state's name is that it is derived from the Sarawak Malay word Serawak or Cerava by Portuguese cartographers in

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2706-529: Is found in coastal and riverine regions. 12 per cent of Sarawak is covered with peat swamp forest . Limestone with well-developed karst topography and cave systems is found scattered from west to east Sarawak, but concentrated in certain regions such as in the Bau district in the west and southwards near the Kalimantan border. There are thirty national parks, among which are Niah with its eponymous caves,

2829-419: Is found, the forest floor is relatively clear of vegetation because of the low sunlight penetration. It also contains decaying plant and animal matter, which disappears quickly, because the warm, humid conditions promote rapid decay. Many forms of fungi growing here help decay the animal and plant waste. More than half of the world's species of plants and animals are found in rainforests. Rainforests support

2952-552: Is located in East Malaysia in northwest Borneo , and is bordered by the Malaysian state of Sabah to the northeast, Kalimantan (the Indonesian portion of Borneo) to the south, and Brunei in the north. The state capital, Kuching , is the largest city in Sarawak, the economic centre of the state, and the seat of the Sarawak state government. Other cities and towns in Sarawak include Miri , Sibu , and Bintulu . As of

3075-582: Is notable for its turtle conservation initiatives. Birdwatching is a common activity in various national parks such as Gunung Mulu National Park, Lambir Hills National Park, and Similajau National Park . Miri–Sibuti National Park is known for its coral reefs and Gunung Gading National Park for its Rafflesia flowers. Bako National Park , the oldest national park in Sarawak, is known for its 275 proboscis monkeys, and Padawan Pitcher Garden for its various carnivorous pitcher plants . In 1854, Alfred Russel Wallace visited Sarawak. A year later, he formulated

3198-450: Is one of the world's largest exporters of tropical hardwood timber , constituting 65% of the total Malaysian log exports in 2000. The last United Nations statistics in 2001 estimated Sarawak's sawlog exports at an average of 14,109,000 m (498,300,000 cu ft) per year between 1996 and 2000. Rainforest Rainforests are forests characterized by a closed and continuous tree canopy , moisture-dependent vegetation,

3321-400: Is the highest point in Sarawak. Sarawak has a tropical geography with an equatorial climate and experiences two monsoon seasons: a northeast monsoon and a southwest monsoon. The northeast monsoon occurs between November and February, bringing heavy rainfall while the southwest monsoon, which occurs between March and October, brings somewhat less rainfall. The climate is stable throughout

3444-524: Is the highest point in the state. Sarawak is the only state of Malaysia with a Christian majority. The earliest known human settlement in Sarawak at the Niah Caves dates back 40,000 years. A series of Chinese ceramics dated from the 8th to 13th century AD was uncovered at the archaeological site of Santubong. The coastal regions of Sarawak came under the influence of the Bruneian Empire in

3567-830: Is usually high, exceeding 68 per cent, with annual rainfall varying between 330 cm (130 in) and 460 cm (180 in) for up to 220 days a year. At highland areas, the temperature can vary from 16 °C (61 °F) to 25 °C (77 °F) during the day and as low as 11 °C (52 °F) during the night. Sarawak is divided into three ecoregions . The coastal region is rather low-lying and flat with large areas of swamp and other wet environments. Beaches in Sarawak include Pasir Panjang and Damai beaches in Kuching, Tanjung Batu beach in Bintulu, and Tanjung Lobang and Hawaii beaches in Miri. Hilly terrain accounts for much of

3690-566: The 1966 Sarawak constitutional crisis . In 1969, the first Sarawak state election was held, with members of the Council Negri being directly elected by the voters. This election marked the beginning of ethnic Melanau domination in Sarawak politics by Abdul Rahman Ya'kub and Abdul Taib Mahmud. In the same year, the North Kalimantan Communist Party (NKCP) which subsequently waged a guerrilla war against

3813-465: The Amazon rainforest ), Central America (e.g. Bosawás , the southern Yucatán Peninsula - El Peten - Belize - Calakmul ), Australia , and on Pacific Islands (such as Hawaiʻi ). Tropical forests have been called the "Earth's lungs ", although it is now known that rainforests contribute little net oxygen addition to the atmosphere through photosynthesis . Tropical forests cover a large part of

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3936-459: The Bakun Dam and Murum Dam projects, have submerged thousands of hectares of forest and displaced thousands of indigenous people. Since 2013, the proposed Baram Dam project has been delayed due to ongoing protests from local indigenous tribes. Since 2014, the Sarawak government under chief minister Adenan Satem started to take action against illegal logging in the state and to diversify

4059-590: The Battle of North Borneo , the Australian forces landed at Lutong-Miri area on 20 June 1945 and penetrated as far as Marudi and Limbang before halting their operations in Sarawak. After the surrender of Japan , the Japanese surrendered to the Australian forces at Labuan on 10 September 1945. The following day, the Japanese forces at Kuching surrendered, and the Batu Lintang camp was liberated. Sarawak

4182-613: The Brunei Revolt broke out. Indonesian president Sukarno responded by deploying armed volunteers and, later, military forces into Sarawak. Thousands of Sarawak communist members went to Kalimantan , Indonesian Borneo, and underwent training with the Communist Party of Indonesia . The most significant engagement of the confrontation was fought at Plaman Mapu in April 1965. The defeat at Plaman Mapu ultimately resulted in

4305-689: The International Maritime Organization (IMO) through the participation of the United Kingdom, became joint associate members of the IMO. Sarawak is separated from Kalimantan Borneo by ranges of high hills and mountains that are part of the central mountain range of Borneo. These become loftier to the north, and are highest near the source of the Baram River at the steep Mount Batu Lawi and Mount Mulu . Mount Murud

4428-878: The Intertropical Convergence Zone . The broader category of tropical moist forests are located in the equatorial zone between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn . Tropical rainforests exist in Southeast Asia (from Myanmar (Burma) ) to the Philippines , Malaysia , Indonesia , Papua New Guinea and Sri Lanka ; also in Sub-Saharan Africa from the Cameroon to the Congo ( Congo Rainforest ), South America (e.g.

4551-632: The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama , written by Prapanca in 1365, mentioned Barune as the constituent state of Hindu Majapahit , which had to make an annual tribute of forty katis of camphor . In 1369, Sulu which was also formerly part of Majapahit, successfully rebelled and then attacked Boni, and had invaded the Northeast Coast of Borneo and afterwards had looted the capital of its treasure and gold including sacking two sacred pearls. A fleet from Majapahit succeeded in driving away

4674-660: The Pakatan Rakyat coalition with Parti Keadilan Rakyat (PKR) and Parti Islam Se-Malaysia (PAS); the latter two parties had become active in Sarawak between 1996 and 2001. Sarawak is the only state in Malaysia where West Malaysia-based component parties in the BN coalition, especially the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO), have not been active in state politics. On 12 June 2018,

4797-477: The Sarawak Parties Alliance was formed by the BN parties in the state in the aftermath of an historic meeting of party leaders in Kuching, where they decided that in light of the BN defeat in the 2018 Malaysian general election and the changing national situation and a new government, the parties will leave the BN altogether. In conjunction with the celebration of Malaysia Day in 2018 under

4920-729: The Sarawak River being the main river flowing through Kuching. The Rajang River is the longest river in Malaysia, measuring 563 km (350 mi) including its tributary, Balleh River . To the north, the Baram, Limbang and Trusan Rivers drain into the Brunei Bay . Sarawak can be divided into two geological zones: the Sunda Shield , which extends southwest from the Batang Lupar River (near Sri Aman ) and forms

5043-559: The Tang and Song dynasties (8th to 13th century AD, respectively) found at Santubong (near Kuching ) hint at its significance as a seaport. One of the earliest Chinese records of an independent kingdom in Borneo is the 977 AD letter to the Chinese emperor from the ruler of Boni, which some scholars believe to refer to Borneo. The Bruneians regained their independence from Srivijaya due to

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5166-418: The equator . Mean monthly temperatures exceed 18 °C (64 °F) during all months of the year. Average annual rainfall is no less than 168 cm (66 in) and can exceed 1,000 cm (390 in) although it typically lies between 175 cm (69 in) and 200 cm (79 in). Many of the world's tropical forests are associated with the location of the monsoon trough , also known as

5289-641: The premier . Sarawak is divided into administrative divisions and districts, governed by a system that is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and was the earliest state legislature system in Malaysia. Under the Malaysian constitution, Sarawak has greater autonomy than the states in Peninsular Malaysia. Because of its natural resources, Sarawak specialises in the export of oil and gas, timber and palm oil , but also possesses strong manufacturing, energy and tourism sectors. It

5412-541: The "Sarawak Law" which foreshadowed the formulation of his (and Darwin's ) theory of evolution by natural selection three years later. The Sarawak state government has enacted several laws to protect its forests and endangered wildlife species. Some of the protected species are the orangutan, green sea turtle , flying lemur , and piping hornbill . Under the Wild Life Protection Ordinance 1998, Sarawak natives are given permissions to hunt for

5535-492: The "jewels of the Earth" and the " world's largest pharmacy ", because over one quarter of natural medicines have been discovered there. Rainforests as well as endemic rainforest species are rapidly disappearing due to deforestation , the resulting habitat loss and pollution of the atmosphere . Rainforests are characterized by a closed and continuous tree canopy, high humidity, the presence of moisture-dependent vegetation,

5658-459: The 1300s the Chinese annals, Nanhai zhi , reported that Brunei invaded or administered Sarawak and Sabah as well as the Philippine kingdoms of Butuan , Sulu , Ma-i (Mindoro), Malilu 麻裏蘆 (present-day Manila ), Shahuchong 沙胡重 (present-day Siocon), Yachen 啞陳 ( Oton ), and 文杜陵 Wenduling (present-day Mindanao ), which would regain their independence at a later date. In the 14th century,

5781-470: The 16th century, which means antimony . A popular alternative explanation is that it is a contraction of the four Malay words purportedly uttered by Pangeran Muda Hashim (uncle to the Sultan of Brunei ), " Saya serah pada awak " (I surrender it to you), when he gave Sarawak to James Brooke , an English explorer, in 1841. However, the latter explanation is incorrect: the territory had been named Sarawak before

5904-414: The 16th century. In 1839, James Brooke , a British explorer, arrived in Sarawak. He, and his descendants, governed the state from 1841 to 1946. During World War II , it was occupied by the Japanese for three years. After the war, the last White Rajah , Charles Vyner Brooke , ceded Sarawak to Britain, and in 1946 it became a British Crown Colony . On 22 July 1963, Sarawak was granted self-government by

6027-583: The 2010 Census and the 2020 Census, together with the official estimates as at mid 2023. The table also includes the locations of the district administrative centres, the number of administrative villages in each district (a total of 122 rural desa and 2 urban kelurahan - the latter both in Bengkayang District), and its post code. Note: (a) includes coastal part of mainland Kalimantan as well as 12 offshore islands. (b) comprising 2 kelurahan (Sebalo and Bumi Emas) and 4 desa . Bengkayang has

6150-482: The 2020 Malaysia census, the population of Sarawak was 2.453 million. Sarawak has an equatorial climate with tropical rainforests and abundant animal and plant species. It has several prominent cave systems at Gunung Mulu National Park . Rajang River is the longest river in Malaysia; Bakun Dam , one of the largest dams in Southeast Asia , is located on one of its tributaries, the Balui River . Mount Murud

6273-400: The 20th century and the area covered by rainforests around the world is shrinking. Biologists have estimated that large numbers of species are being driven to extinction (possibly more than 50,000 a year; at that rate, says E. O. Wilson of Harvard University , a quarter or more of all species on Earth could be exterminated within 50 years) due to the removal of habitat with destruction of

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6396-456: The British and subsequently became one of the founding members of Malaysia, established on 16 September 1963. However, the federation was opposed by Indonesia, leading to a three-year confrontation . The creation of Malaysia also prompted a communist insurgency that lasted until 1990. The head of state is the governor, also known as the Yang di-Pertua Negeri , while the head of government is

6519-417: The Brooke government created an advisory Supreme Council, mostly consisting of Malay chiefs. This council is the oldest state legislative assembly in Malaysia, with the first general council meeting taking place at Bintulu in 1867. In 1928, a judicial commissioner, Thomas Stirling Boyd, was appointed as the first legally trained judge. A similar system relating to matters concerning various Chinese communities

6642-417: The Earth, but one to two hundred feet above it, extending over thousands of square miles." A true exploration of this habitat only began in the 1980s, when scientists developed methods to reach the canopy, such as firing ropes into the trees using crossbows . Exploration of the canopy is still in its infancy, but other methods include the use of balloons and airships to float above the highest branches and

6765-628: The Japanese and interned at the Batu Lintang camp . Sarawak remained part of the Empire of Japan for three years and eight months. During this time it was divided into three provinces – Kuching-shu, Sibu-shu, and Miri-shu – each under their respective Provincial Governor. The Japanese otherwise preserved the Brooke administrative structure and appointed Japanese people to important government positions. Allied forces later carried out Operation Semut to sabotage Japanese operations in Sarawak. During

6888-493: The Kuching airfield held as long as possible before being destroyed. A Japanese invasion force led by Kiyotake Kawaguchi landed in Miri on 16 December 1941 and captured Kuching on 24 December 1941, with British ground forces retreating to Singkawang in neighbouring Dutch Borneo . The Allied forces surrendered on 1 April 1942 after ten weeks of fighting there. Charles Vyner Brooke , the last Rajah of Sarawak, had already left for Sydney , Australia; his officers were captured by

7011-627: The Kuching region led Pengiran Indera Mahkota , a representative of the Sultan of Brunei, to increase development in the territory between 1824 and 1830. Increasing antimony production in the region led the Brunei Sultanate to demand higher taxes, which ultimately led to civil unrest. In 1839, Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II (1827–1852) assigned his uncle Pengiran Muda Hashim the task of restoring order but his inability to do so caused him to request

7134-455: The Malaysian parliament. This level of autonomy means Sarawak is sometimes referred to as a "region", to differentiate it from less autonomous states. Major political parties in Sarawak can be divided into three categories: native Sarawak Bumiputera (PBB and PBM), native Sarawak Dayak (PRS, PDP, PBDSB, etc.), and non-Bumiputera (SUPP, PSB, PBK, etc.); Parties, however, may also include members from more than one group. The first political party,

7257-698: The Sarawak United Peoples' Party (SUPP), was established in 1959, followed by the Parti Negara Sarawak (PANAS) in 1960 and the Sarawak National Party (SNAP) in 1961. Other major political parties such as Parti Pesaka Sarawak (PESAKA) appeared by 1962. These parties later joined the national coalition of the Alliance Party. The Alliance Party (later regrouped into Barisan Nasional ) has ruled Sarawak since

7380-462: The Sulus, but Boni was left weaker after the attack. A Chinese report from 1371 described Boni as poor and totally controlled by Majapahit. The Bruneian Empire was established in the coastal regions of Sarawak by the mid-15th century, and the Kuching area was known to Portuguese cartographers during the 16th century as Cerava , one of the five great seaports of Borneo. The Sultanate of Sarawak

7503-486: The aid of British sailor James Brooke . Brooke's success in quelling the revolt was rewarded with antimony, property and the governorship of Sarawak, which at that time consisted only of a small area centred on Kuching. The Brooke family , later called the White Rajahs , set about expanding the territory they had been ceded. With expansion came the need for efficient governance and thus, beginning in 1841, Sarawak

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7626-539: The arrival of James Brooke, and the word awak was not in the vocabulary of Sarawak Malay before the formation of Malaysia. Sarawak is nicknamed "Land of the Hornbills" ( Bumi Kenyalang ). These birds are important cultural symbols for the Dayak people, representing the spirit of God. It is also believed that if a hornbill is seen flying over residences, it will bring good luck to the local community. Sarawak has eight of

7749-514: The assassination of the second colonial governor of Sarawak, Sir Duncan Stewart . Despite the resistance, Sarawak became a British Crown colony on 1 July 1946. Anthony Brooke opposed the cession of Sarawak to the British Crown, for which he was banished from Sarawak by the colonial government. He was only allowed to return 17 years later after Sarawak had become part of Malaysia. In 1950 all anti-cession movements in Sarawak ceased after

7872-464: The building of cranes and walkways planted on the forest floor. The science of accessing tropical forest canopy using airships or similar aerial platforms is called dendronautics . The understory or understorey layer lies between the canopy and the forest floor. It is home to a number of birds , snakes and lizards , as well as predators such as jaguars , boa constrictors and leopards . The leaves are much larger at this level and insect life

7995-408: The country. Several border disputes between Malaysia and its neighbouring countries concern Sarawak. Land and maritime disputes exist with Brunei. In 2009, Malaysian prime minister Abdullah Ahmad Badawi claimed that in a meeting with Sultan of Brunei, Brunei agreed to drop its claim over Limbang . This was however denied by the second Foreign Minister of Brunei Lim Jock Seng , stating the issue

8118-417: The decomposing remains of plants and animals. The great diversity in rainforest species is in large part the result of diverse and numerous physical refuges , i.e. places in which plants are inaccessible to many herbivores, or in which animals can hide from predators. Having numerous refuges available also results in much higher total biomass than would otherwise be possible. Some species of fauna show

8241-444: The districts of that regency into seven. In 2002, three new districts were established ( Monterado district was split off from the western part of Samalantan district, Teriak district was split off from the eastern part of Bengkayang district, and Suti Semarang district was split off from the western part of Ledo district), increasing the districts into 10. In 2004, another four new districts were established ( Capkala district

8364-597: The economy of the state. Through the course of 2016 over 2 million acres of forest, much of it in orangutan habitats, were declared protected areas. Sources vary as to Sarawak's remaining forest cover: former chief minister Abdul Taib Mahmud declared that it fell from 70% to 48% between 2011 and 2012, the Sarawak Forest Department and the Ministry of Resource Planning and Environment both held that it remained at 80% in 2012, and Wetlands International reported that it fell by 10% between 2005 and 2010, 3.5 times faster than

8487-492: The export-oriented economy is dominated by liquefied natural gas (LNG), which accounts for more than half of total exports. Crude petroleum accounts for 45.1%, while palm oil, sawlogs , and sawn timber account for 12.0% collectively. The state receives a 5% royalty from Petronas over oil explorations in its territorial waters. Most of the oil and gas deposits are located offshore next to Bintulu and Miri at Balingian basin, Baram basin, and around Luconia Shoals. Sarawak

8610-588: The failure to reach two-thirds majority support (148 votes) in the Parliament with only 138 agreed with the move while 59 abstained from the voting. On 14 December 2021, the proposed amendment was passed in the Parliament unanimously with 199 votes in favour, and 21 MPs absent from the 6-hour long debate. Unlike states in Peninsular Malaysia , Sarawak is divided into 12 divisions, each headed by an appointed resident. On 26 November 2015, it

8733-591: The fall of Sukarno and his replacement with Suharto as President of Indonesia. Negotiations were restarted between Malaysia and Indonesia and led to the end of the confrontation on 11 August 1966. A number of communist groups existed in Sarawak, the first of which, the Sarawak Overseas Chinese Democratic Youth League, formed in 1951. Another group, the North Kalimantan Communist Party (NKCP, also known as Clandestine Communist Organisation (CCO) by government sources)

8856-482: The formation of Malaysia. The opposition in Sarawak has consistently alleged that the ruling coalition uses various types of vote-buying tactics in order to win elections. Stephen Kalong Ningkan was the first Chief Minister of Sarawak from 1963 to 1966 following his landslide victory in local council elections. However, he was ousted in 1966 by Tawi Sli with the help of the Malaysian federal government , causing

8979-699: The globe, but temperate rainforests only occur in a few regions around the world. Temperate rainforests are rainforests in temperate regions. They occur in North America (in the Pacific Northwest in Alaska , British Columbia , Washington , Oregon and California ), in Europe (parts of the British Isles such as the coastal areas of Ireland and Scotland , southern Norway , parts of

9102-422: The growth of vegetation in a tropical rainforest, soil quality is often quite poor. Rapid bacterial decay prevents the accumulation of humus . The concentration of iron and aluminium oxides by the laterization process gives the oxisols a bright red colour and sometimes produces mineral deposits such as bauxite . Most trees have roots near the surface because there are insufficient nutrients below

9225-487: The highly developed ecosystem around Lambir Hills , and the World Heritage Site of Gunung Mulu . The last contains Sarawak Chamber , one of the world's largest underground chambers, Deer Cave , the largest cave passage in the world, and Clearwater Cave , the longest cave system in Southeast Asia . Sarawak contains large tracts of tropical rainforest with diverse plant species, which has led to

9348-473: The increasing deforestation rate, especially in Indonesia, is the expansion of oil palm plantations to meet growing demand for cheap vegetable fats and biofuels . In Indonesia, palm oil is already cultivated on nine million hectares and, together with Malaysia , the island nation produces about 85 percent of the world's palm oil. Several countries, notably Brazil , have declared their deforestation

9471-606: The inhabited land and is where most of the cities and towns are found. The ports of Kuching and Sibu are built some distance from the coast on rivers while Bintulu and Miri are close to the coastline where the hills stretch right to the South China Sea. The third region is the mountainous region along the Sarawak–Kalimantan border, where a number of villages such as Bario , Ba'kelalan , and Usun Apau Plieran are located. A number of rivers flow through Sarawak, with

9594-604: The interests of the Sarawakians in the Malaysian federation, special safeguards have been included in the Constitution of Malaysia . These include: control over immigration in and out of the state as well as the residence status of non-Sarawakians and Sabahans, limitations on the practice of law to resident lawyers, independence of the Sarawak High Court from the High Court Peninsular Malaysia,

9717-477: The interior". About half of Sarawak's 1.5 million people are Dayaks. Most Dayaks, it is believed by anthropologists, came originally from the South-East Asian mainland. Their mythologies support this. Tropical and temperate rainforests have been subjected to heavy legal and illegal logging for their valuable hardwoods and agricultural clearance ( slash-and-burn , clearcutting ) throughout

9840-514: The island of New Guinea is home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups. The tribes are in danger because of the deforestation, especially in Brazil. Central African rainforest is home of the Mbuti pygmies , one of the hunter-gatherer peoples living in equatorial rainforests characterised by their short height (below one and a half metres, or 59 inches, on average). They were the subject of

9963-628: The late Cretaceous period. Other types of stone that can be found in central and northern Sarawak are shale , sandstone , and chert . The Miri Division in eastern Sarawak is the region of Neogene strata containing organic rich rock formations which are the prolific oil and gas reserves . The rocks enriched in organic components are mudstones in Lambir, Miri and Tukau Formations of Middle Miocene - Lower Pliocene age. Significant quantities of Sarawak soil are lithosols , up to 60 per cent, and podsols , around 12 per cent, while abundant alluvial soil

10086-651: The life of indigenous tribes, especially the Penan, whose livelihood is heavily dependent on forest produce. This led to several blockades by indigenous tribes during the 1980s and 1990s against logging companies encroaching on their lands. Indeed, illegal logging in particular has decimated the forest regions indigenous populations depend on for their livelihoods, depleting fish, wildlife, but also traditional medicinal herbs and construction staples like Palm. There have also been cases where Native Customary Rights (NCR) lands have been given to timber and plantation companies without

10209-437: The majority of the largest trees, typically 30 metres (98 ft) to 45 metres (148 ft) tall. The densest areas of biodiversity are found in the forest canopy, a more or less continuous cover of foliage formed by adjacent treetops. The canopy, by some estimates, is home to 50 percent of all plant species. Epiphytic plants attach to trunks and branches , and obtain water and minerals from rain and debris that collects on

10332-711: The mammals, 6 per cent of the birds, 20 per cent of the snakes and 32 per cent of the lizards are endemic . These species are largely found in Totally Protected Areas. There are over 2,000 tree species in Sarawak. Other plants includes 1,000 species of orchids, 757 species of ferns, and 260 species of palm. The state is the habitat of endangered animals, including the borneo pygmy elephant , proboscis monkey , orangutans and Sumatran rhinoceroses . Matang Wildlife Centre, Semenggoh Nature Reserve, and Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary are noted for their orangutan protection programmes. Talang–Satang National Park

10455-439: The manufacture of food and beverages, wood-based and rattan products, basic metal products, and petrochemicals , as well as cargo and air services and tourism. The state's gross domestic product (GDP) grew by 40.5% per year on average from 2010 to 2021, but became very more volatile later on, ranging from −3.0% in 2009 to 35.0% in 2021. Sarawak contributed 9.5% of Malaysia's GDP in the nine years leading up to 2020, making it

10578-640: The mid-1960s but nonetheless retained control of the CCO, pushed for a continued armed insurrection against the government in spite of this agreement. The conflict continued mostly in the Rajang Delta region but eventually ended when, on 17 October 1990, the NKCP signed a peace agreement with the Government of Sarawak. The head of the Sarawak state is the Yang di-Pertua Negeri (also known as TYT or Governor),

10701-538: The new government, Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad has promised to restore the status of Sarawak (together with Sabah) as an equal partner to Malaya, where all three parties (and then, Singapore) formed Malaysia in accordance to the Malaysia Agreement . However, through the process of the proposed amendment to the Constitution of Malaysia in 2019, the bill for the amendment failed to pass following

10824-652: The newly elected Sarawak state government, was formed. The party was dissolved after the signing of a peace agreement in 1990. 1973 saw the birth of Parti Pesaka Bumiputera Bersatu (PBB) following a merger of several parties. This party would later become the backbone of the Sarawak BN coalition. In 1978, the Democratic Action Party (DAP) was the first West Malaysia-based party to open its branches in Sarawak. Sarawak originally held state elections together with national parliamentary elections. However,

10947-530: The oldest museum in Borneo – in 1891, and brokered a peace in Marudi by ending intertribal wars there. Economic development continued, with oil wells being drilled from 1910 and the Brooke Dockyard opening two years later. Anthony Brooke , who would become Rajah Muda (heir apparent) in 1939. A centenary celebration of Brooke rule in Sarawak was held in 1941. During the celebration, a new constitution

11070-582: The onset of a Javanese-Sumatran war. In 1225, the Chinese official Zhao Rukuo reported that Boni had 100 warships to protect its trade, and that there was great wealth in the kingdom. Marco Polo suggested in his memoirs that the Great Khan or the ruler of the Mongol Empire , attempted and failed many times in invading "Great Java" which was the European name for Bruneian controlled Borneo. In

11193-570: The permission of the locals. The indigenous people have resorted to legal means to reinstate their NCR. In 2001 the High Court of Sarawak fully reinstated the NCR land claimed by the Rumah Nor people, but this was overturned partially in 2005. However, this case has served as a precedent, leading to more NCR being upheld by the high court in the following years. Sarawak's mega-dam policies, such as

11316-473: The poor soil quality. First is that the soil is highly acidic. The roots of plants rely on an acidity difference between the roots and the soil in order to absorb nutrients. When the soil is acidic, there is little difference, and therefore little absorption of nutrients from the soil. Second, the type of clay particles present in tropical rainforest soil has a poor ability to trap nutrients and stop them from washing away. Even if humans artificially add nutrients to

11439-501: The population can enjoy access to clean water. When Bengkayang Regency was established, it originally composed into 10 districts (including three districts from administrative city of Singkawang), with the most recent at that time was Jagoi Babang , which was split off from the northern part of Seluas district in 1996 when the regency is still part of Sambas Regency. On 21 June 2001, Singkawang officially established as an autonomous city by splitting off from Bengkayang Regency, reducing

11562-460: The presence of epiphytes and lianas and the absence of wildfire. Rainforests can be generally classified as tropical rainforests or temperate rainforests , but other types have been described. Estimates vary from 40% to 75% of all biotic species being indigenous to the rainforests. There may be many millions of species of plants, insects and microorganisms still undiscovered in tropical rainforests. Tropical rainforests have been called

11685-708: The rainforests. Another factor causing the loss of rainforest is expanding urban areas . Littoral rainforest growing along coastal areas of eastern Australia is now rare due to ribbon development to accommodate the demand for seachange lifestyles. Forests are being destroyed at a rapid pace. Almost 90% of West Africa 's rainforest has been destroyed. Since the arrival of humans, Madagascar has lost two thirds of its original rainforest. At present rates, tropical rainforests in Indonesia would be logged out in 10 years and Papua New Guinea in 13 to 16 years. According to Rainforest Rescue , an important reason for

11808-538: The regiment was absorbed into the Malaysian military forces and is now known as the Royal Ranger Regiment . In 1888, Sarawak, together with neighbouring North Borneo , and Brunei, became British protectorates , and the responsibility for foreign policy was handed over to the British in exchange for military protection. Since the formation of Malaysia, the Malaysian federal government has been solely responsible for foreign policy and military forces in

11931-483: The rest of Asia combined. Sarawak GDP share by sector (2021) Historically, Sarawak's economy was stagnant during the rule of previous three white Rajahs. After the formation of Malaysia, Sarawak GDP growth rate has risen due to increase in petroleum output and the rise in global petroleum prices. However, the state economy is less diversified and still heavily dependent upon the export of primary commodities when compared to Malaysia overall. The per capita GDP in Sarawak

12054-482: The same time, rainforests are usually not used sustainably by non-native peoples but are being exploited or removed for agricultural purposes . On January 18, 2007, FUNAI reported also that it had confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. With this addition, Brazil has now overtaken the island of New Guinea as the country having the largest number of uncontacted tribes. The province of Irian Jaya or West Papua in

12177-421: The soil, the nutrients mostly wash away and are not absorbed by the plants. Finally, these soils are poor due to the high volume of rain in tropical rainforests washes nutrients out of the soil more quickly than in other climates. A natural rainforest emits and absorbs vast quantities of carbon dioxide . On a global scale, long-term fluxes are approximately in balance, so that an undisturbed rainforest would have

12300-499: The southern tip of Sarawak, and the geosyncline region, which extends northeast to the Batang Lupar River, forming the central and northern regions of Sarawak. The oldest rock type in southern Sarawak is schist formed during the Carboniferous and Lower Permian times, while the youngest igneous rock in this region, andesite , can be found at Sematan . Geological formation of the central and northern regions started during

12423-573: The state was stable until the 1987 Ming Court Affair , a political coup initiated by Abdul Taib Mahmud 's uncle to topple the Taib-led BN coalition. However, the coup was unsuccessful and Taib retained his position as chief minister. Since the 2006 state election , the Democratic Action Party (DAP) has derived the majority of its support from urban centres and became the largest opposition party in Sarawak. In 2010, it formed

12546-443: The supporting plants. The fauna is similar to that found in the emergent layer but more diverse. A quarter of all insect species are believed to exist in the rainforest canopy. Scientists have long suspected the richness of the canopy as a habitat, but have only recently developed practical methods of exploring it. As long ago as 1917, naturalist William Beebe declared that "another continent of life remains to be discovered, not upon

12669-433: The surface; most of the trees' minerals come from the top layer of decomposing leaves and animals. On younger substrates, especially of volcanic origin, tropical soils may be quite fertile. If rainforest trees are cleared, rain can accumulate on the exposed soil surfaces, creating run-off, and beginning a process of soil erosion . Eventually, streams and rivers form and flooding becomes possible. There are several reasons for

12792-419: The then chief minister Abdul Rahman Ya'kub delayed the dissolution of the state assembly by a year to prepare for the challenges posed by opposition parties. This made Sarawak the only state in Malaysia to hold state elections separate from the national parliamentary elections since 1979. In 1983, SNAP started to fragment into several splinter parties due to recurrent leadership crises. The political climate in

12915-567: The third largest contributor after Selangor and Kuala Lumpur . From 2015 to 2021, the oil and gas industry accounted for 55.2% of the Sarawak government's revenue. It attracted RM 80 billion (US$ 17.85 billion) in foreign investments, with 95% going to the Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy (SCORE), the second largest economic corridor in Malaysia. As of 2021, Sarawak is producing 2,800,000 barrel of oil equivalent every day in 150 oil and gas producing fields. However,

13038-406: The total area of Malaysia, and lies between the northern latitudes 0° 50′ and 5° and eastern longitudes 109° 36′ and 115° 40′ E. Its 750 km (470 mi) of coastline is interrupted in the north by about 150 km (93 mi) of Bruneian coast. A total of its 45.5 km (28.3 mi) coastline have been eroding . In 1961, Sarawak including neighbouring Sabah , which had been included in

13161-761: The western Balkans along the Adriatic coast, as well as in Galicia and coastal areas of the eastern Black Sea , including Georgia and coastal Turkey ), in East Asia (in southern China , Highlands of Taiwan , much of Japan and Korea , and on Sakhalin Island and the adjacent Russian Far East coast), in South America (southern Chile ) and also in Australia and New Zealand . Dry rainforests have

13284-552: The world's fifty-four species of hornbills, and the Rhinoceros hornbill is the state bird of Sarawak. Foragers are known to have lived around the west mouth of the Niah Caves (located 110 km (68 mi) southwest of Miri ) 40,000 years ago. A modern human skull found near the Niah Caves is the oldest human remain found in Malaysia and the oldest modern human skull from Southeast Asia. Chinese ceramics dating to

13407-411: The year except for the two monsoons, with average daily temperature varying between 23 °C (73 °F) in the morning to 32 °C (90 °F) in the afternoon at coastal areas. Miri has the lowest average temperatures in comparison to other major towns in Sarawak and has the longest daylight hours (more than six hours a day), while other areas receive sunshine for five to six hours a day. Humidity

13530-557: Was also formed. Members of the local community were encouraged by the Brooke regime to focus on particular functions within the territory; the Ibans and other Dayak people were hired as militia while Malays were primarily administrators. Chinese, both local and immigrant, were mostly employed in plantations, mines and as bureaucrats. Expanding trade led to the formation of the Borneo Company Limited in 1856. The company

13653-555: Was announced that the Kuching Division district of Serian would become Sarawak's 12th division and it had officiated by Adenan Satem at its formal creation on 11 April 2015. A division is divided into districts, each headed by a district officer, which are in turn divided into sub-districts, each headed by a Sarawak Administrative Officer (SAO). There is also one development officer for each division and district to implement development projects. The state government appoints

13776-420: Was cut out from the eastern part of Sungai Raya district, Sungai Betung district was cut out from the western part of Bengkayang district, Lumar district was cut out from the southern part of Ledo district, and Siding district was split off from the western part of Jagoi Babang district), increasing the number into 14 districts. In 2006, three more districts were established ( Sungai Raya Kepulauan district

13899-563: Was established during this time and lasted for almost half a century before being reunited with Brunei in 1641. By the early 19th century, the Bruneian Empire was in decline, retaining only a tenuous hold on the coastal regions of Sarawak which were otherwise controlled by semi-independent Malay leaders. Away from the coast, territorial wars were fought between the Iban and a Kenyah - Kayan alliance. The discovery of antimony ore in

14022-463: Was formally set up in 1970. Weng Min Chyuan and Bong Kee Chok were two of the more notable communist leaders involved in the insurgency. As the political scene changed, it grew progressively more difficult for the communists to operate. This led to Bong opening talks with chief minister Abdul Rahman Ya'kub in 1973 and eventually signing an agreement with the government. Weng, who had moved to China in

14145-614: Was immediately placed under British Military Administration and managed by the Australian Imperial Force until April 1946. Lacking the resources to rebuild Sarawak after the war, Charles Vyner Brooke decided to cede Sarawak as British Crown Colony and a cession bill was put forth in the Council Negri (now Sarawak State Legislative Assembly ), which was debated for three days. The bill passed on 17 May 1946 with 19 votes to 16. Hundreds of Malay civil servants resigned in protest, sparking an anti-cession movement and

14268-453: Was introduced that would limit the power of the rajah and grant the Sarawak people a greater role in running the government. However, this constitution was never fully implemented due to the Japanese occupation. That same year saw the British withdrawing its air and marine forces defending Sarawak to Singapore. With Sarawak now unguarded, the Brooke regime adopted a scorched earth policy where oil installations in Miri were to be destroyed and

14391-465: Was involved in a wide range of businesses in Sarawak including trade, banking, agriculture, mineral exploration, and development. Between 1853 and 1862, there were a number of uprisings against the Brooke government but all were successfully contained with the aid of local tribes. To guard against future uprisings, a series of forts were constructed to protect Kuching, including Fort Margherita , completed in 1871. By that time Brooke's control of Sarawak

14514-419: Was lower than the national average from 1970 to 1990. As of 2021, GDP per capita for Sarawak stands at RM 65,971 (US$ 15,173), which is the third highest in Malaysia. However, the urban-rural income gap remained a major problem in Sarawak. Sarawak is abundant in natural resources, and primary industries such as mining, agriculture, and forestry accounted for 32.8% of its economy in 2013. It also specialises in

14637-590: Was never discussed during the meeting. James Shoal (Betting Serupai) and the Luconia Shoals (Betting Raja Jarum/Patinggi Ali), islands in the South China Sea , fall within Sarawak's exclusive economic zone , but concerns have been raised about Chinese incursions. There are also several Sarawak–Kalimantan border issues with Indonesia. The total land area of Sarawak is nearly 124,450 km (48,050 sq mi), making up 37.5 per cent of

14760-477: Was separated into the first of its administrative divisions and the Sarawak dollar , entered circulation in 1858. By 1912, a total of five divisions had been established in Sarawak, each headed by a Resident . The Brooke family generally practised a paternalistic form of government with minimal bureaucracy, but were pressured to establish some form of legal framework. Since they were unfamiliar with local customs,

14883-489: Was set up in 1997 for the conservation, protection, and sustainable development of biodiversity in the state. Sarawak's rain forests are primarily threatened by the logging industry and palm oil plantations. The issue of human rights of the Penan and deforestation in Sarawak became an international environmental issue when Swiss activist Bruno Manser visited Sarawak regularly between 1984 and 2000. Deforestation has affected

15006-419: Was split off from the northern part of Sungai Raya district, Lembah Bawang district was split off from the northern part of Samalantan district, and Tujuh Belas district was re-established by splitting off from the eastern part of Sanggau Ledo district), increasing it into 17 districts. The regency is divided into seventeen districts ( kecamatan ), tabulated below with their areas and their populations at

15129-476: Was such that defences were largely unnecessary. Charles Anthoni Brooke succeeded his uncle as White Rajah in 1868. Under his rule, Sarawak gained Limbang and the Baram and Trusan valleys from the Sultan of Brunei, later becoming a protectorate in 1888 with Britain handling foreign affairs but the Brooke government retaining administrative powers. Domestically, Brooke established the Sarawak Museum –

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