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106-623: The Sultanate of Brunei ( Jawi : كسلطانن بروني) or simply Brunei ( / b r uː ˈ n aɪ / broo- NY ), also known as the Brunei Empire , was a Malay sultanate, centered around Brunei on the northern coast of Borneo in Southeast Asia. Brunei became a sovereign state around the 15th century, when it substantially expanded after the fall of Malacca to the Portuguese , extending throughout coastal areas of Borneo and

212-564: A "flower hole" (花穿), a "rosette hole", or a "chestnut hole". Besides the Mandarin term Huachuanqian (花穿錢) they are also known as Linghuachuanqian (菱花穿錢). While some believe that these "flower hole" cash coins were accidentally created due to the incompetence of mint workers who produced faulty cash coins, others believe that these "flower holes" weren't mere accidental creations and had some sort of significance, meaning that they were intentionally created. Huachuanqian are characterised by

318-531: A British protectorate, which lasted until 1984, when Brunei gained independence. The sultanate was divided into three traditional land systems known as kerajaan (crown property), kuripan (official property) and tulin (hereditary private property). Arab travelers who explored the Malay Archipelago referred to Brunei as "Ka Selatanga," located to the east of Java and southwest of Luzon . Other Arab explorers called it "Zabaj" or "Zabaji," indicating

424-596: A Korean cash coin with an eight-sided "flower hole" ("rosette hole") includes a Sangpyeong Tongbo  [ ko ] (常平通寶) cash coin cast at the "Government Office of Pukhan Mountain Fortress", with the mint mark kyŏng (經). While Huachuanqian were very scarce in Chine until the Song dynasty period, cash coins with "flower holes" were gradually becoming rarer in subsequent dynasties and probably stopped being produced around

530-416: A city built on water, with a hot climate which experienced tidal changes twice a day. They noted the presence of peacocks , monkeys, and talking cockatoos , which sported feathers in white, red, and yellow. The region was rich in natural resources, producing camphor, gold, spices, nutmeg , and sandalwood. The Arab travelers also recognised Brunei as a significant kingdom within the Malay Archipelago, boasting

636-523: A few times. Premises that fail to comply with this order will be fined up to a maximum of RM250, with the possibility of revocation of their business licences if they still do not comply afterwards. In the early stage, usage of Jawi stickers are allowed to put on existing signage instead of replacing the whole signage. Indonesia, having multiple regional and native languages, uses the Latin script for writing its own standard of Malay in general. Nonetheless,

742-438: A gradual spread of its cultural influence eastward throughout Maritime Southeast Asia . Malay became the regional lingua franca of trade and many polities enculturated Islamic Malay customs and governance to varying degrees, including Kapampangans, Tagalogs and other coastal Philippine peoples. According to Bruneian folklore, around 1500 Sultan Bolkiah launched a successful northward expedition to break Tondo 's monopoly as

848-638: A land known for producing camphor. Zabaj or Zabaji is said to be situated near the Thousand Islands in the Philippines. Ahmad ibn Majid , a notable Arab navigator who sailed through the Malay Archipelago, referred to Zabaj or Zabaji as "Barni," which corresponds to Brunei. Additionally, the South China Sea, which they navigated en route to China, was also named "Laut Barni" or "Brunei Sea." The Arab explorers described Brunei's capital as

954-474: A number of hypotheses exist to explain their possible meaning. While their creation may at times have been an error, the fairly large quantities of Huachuanqian that found their way into general circulation during the Tang and Song dynasty periods in particular, two Chinese dynasties which were generally renowned for their practice of producing cash coins with both high standards and high quality, would indicate that

1060-438: A premium compared to their square holed counterparts with the same inscription. If the shape of these holes were only hexagonal then they were referred to as "turtle shell hole coins" (龜甲穿錢). While initially the field of Chinese numismatics neglected the study of Huachuanqian, after an article published in the journal Chinese Numismatics in 1994 brought this phenomenon to mainstream attention, wider interest in these cash coins

1166-649: A regional entrepôt of Chinese trade and established Maynila (Selurong) across the Pasig delta, ruled by his heirs as a satellite. Bruneian influence spread elsewhere around Manila Bay, present-day Batangas, and coastal Mindoro through closer trade and political relations, with a growing overseas Kapampangan-Tagalog population based in Brunei and beyond in Malacca in various professions as traders, sailors, shipbuilders, mercenaries, governors, and slaves. The rising power of

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1272-780: A retinue of 150 family members. After two months in China, he fell ill and died at the age of 28 in October 1408, with his remains interred on the slopes of a hill named Shih-tzu Kang in Nanking . To fulfill Sultan Abdul Majid's wishes, the Chinese emperor appointed Hsia-wang, the Sultan's son, as the King of Brunei. After spending a year in China, Hsia-wang returned to Brunei, escorted by Chinese officials led by Chong Chien. During Hsia-wang’s absence,

1378-469: A strong military presence. Its naval bases were strategically located at crucial river estuaries, commanded by a Pengiran and his followers, who were responsible for maintaining the safety and security of the people and the state. Most of Brunei's population resided around Brunei Bay, engaging in various occupations such as fishing and farming, while others became skilled sailors, brave warriors, and successful traders. According to Arab explorers, Brunei's port

1484-587: A subject of Java . The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama , written by Prapanca in 1365, mentioned Barune as the vassal state of Majapahit , which had to make an annual tribute of 40 katis of camphor . After Majapahit invaded Brunei, its subject kingdoms in the Philippines which were formally under its control, rebelled against Brunei, chief of which was the former kingdom of Sulu which besieged and pillaged it. Its (Brunei's) own empire gone, it would appear to have shrunk to its heartland by Brunei bay. It now paid an annual tribute of 40 kati of camphor to

1590-832: A tombstone discovered in Phan Rang , Vietnam dated 431 AH (1039 CE); a tombstone dated 440 AH (1048 CE) found in Bandar Seri Begawan , Brunei ; and a tombstone of Fatimah Binti Maimun Bin Hibat Allah found in Gresik , East Java dated 475 AH (1082 CE). Islam was spread from the coasts to the interior of the island and generally in a top-down process in which rulers were converted and then introduced more or less orthodox versions of Islam to their peoples. The conversion of King Phra Ong Mahawangsa of Kedah in 1136 and King Merah Silu of Samudra Pasai in 1267 were among

1696-543: Is Javanese Krama word to refer to the Java Island or Javanese people . According to Kamus Dewan , Jawi ( جاوي ) is a term synonymous to ' Malay '. The term has been used interchangeably with 'Malay' in other terms including Bahasa Jawi or Bahasa Yawi ( Kelantan-Pattani Malay , a Malayan language used in Southern Thailand ), Masuk Jawi (literally "to become Malay", referring to

1802-831: Is a writing system used for writing several languages of Southeast Asia , such as Acehnese , Magindanawn , Malay , Mëranaw , Minangkabau , Tausūg , and Ternate . Jawi is based on the Arabic script , consisting of all 31 original Arabic letters, six letters constructed to fit phonemes native to Malay, and one additional phoneme used in foreign loanwords, but not found in Classical Arabic , which are ca ( ⟨ چ ‎⟩ /t͡ʃ/ ), nga ( ⟨ ڠ ‎⟩ /ŋ/ ), pa ( ⟨ ڤ ‎⟩ /p/ ), ga ( ⟨ ݢ ‎⟩ /ɡ/ ), va ( ⟨ ۏ ‎⟩ /v/ ), and nya ( ⟨ ڽ ‎⟩ /ɲ/ ). Jawi

1908-589: Is also used as an alternative script among Malay communities in Indonesia and Thailand. Until the early 20th century, there was no standard spelling system for Jawi. The earliest orthographic reform towards a standard system was in 1937 by The Malay Language and Johor Royal Literary Book Pact. This was followed by another reform by Za'aba , published in 1949. The final major reform was the Enhanced Guidelines of Jawi Spelling issued in 1986 , which

2014-684: Is another derivative that carries the meaning 'Malay script'. Prior to the onset of Islamisation , the Pallava script , Nagari, and old Sumatran scripts were used in writing the Malay language. This is evidenced from the discovery of several stone inscriptions in Old Malay , notably the Kedukan Bukit inscription and Talang Tuo inscription . The spread of Islam in Southeast Asia and the subsequent introduction of Arabic writing system began with

2120-570: Is based on the Daftar Kata Bahasa Melayu (DKBM): Rumi-Sebutan-Jawi dictionary. Older texts may use different spellings for some words. Nonetheless, even different modern sources may use different spelling conventions; they may differ especially in the usage of the matres lectionis ( alif ا , wau و and ya ي ) and the hamzah tiga suku ء , as well as in the spelling of vowels and consonant clusters in loanwords from English . One source tends to use

2226-565: Is currently in general usage. Today, Jawi is one of two official scripts in Brunei . In Malaysia, the position of Jawi is protected under Section 9 of the National Language Act 1963/67 , as it retains a degree of official use in religious and cultural contexts. In some states, most notably Kelantan , Terengganu and Pahang , Jawi has co-official script status as businesses are mandated to adopt Jawi signage and billboards. Jawi

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2332-593: Is demonstrated by the fact that it was referred to by names like P'oli and P'oni during the Liang , Sui , Tang , Song , and Ming dynasties . In the Temburong District in particular, the term P'oni is still used today. In addition, the family of Awang Alak Betatar is thought to have established the old monarchy in Garang before moving to Kota Batu in 1397 AD. In the 14th century, Brunei seems to have been

2438-436: Is first mentioned in Chinese historical records around 518 AD , situated on an island southeast of Canton , with a maritime journey from Canton to Brunei taking approximately 60 days. According to these records, Brunei was a Hindu - Buddhist kingdom at the time, governing 136 regions. In 518 AD, the King of Brunei sent envoys to China to strengthen diplomatic relations, bringing gifts like gold mats and other local products for

2544-533: Is widely used in Riau and Riau Island province, where road signs and government building signs are written in this script. A sister variant called Pegon is used to write Javanese, Sundanese, and Madurese and is still widely used in traditional religious schools across Java , but has been supplanted in common writing by the Latin alphabet and, in some cases, Javanese script and Sundanese script . Modern Jawi spelling

2650-709: The Aceh region in Sumatra , is claimed by local authorities to refer to Brunei as well. A renegade group from the kingdom of Funan in Cambodia found themselves in Borneo after escaping the Khmer invasion, which is where Brunei's historical roots lie. In honor of its ruler, Raja Kamrun, the early Arab explorers called this new country Kamrun. This name changed throughout time to become Muja, Zabaj, and finally Brunei. The history of

2756-556: The Chinese Emperor . Five years later, in 523 AD, the King sent another delegation with additional gifts, including seashells, perfumes, and other local goods. Around 669 AD, the King of Brunei once again dispatched envoys to China, this time alongside Siamese representatives. During this period, Brunei was referred to in Chinese history as P'olo. The records also note that P'oli or P'olo is equivalent to P'oni (Brunei), located on an island southwest of Chuan-chou . The travel time

2862-666: The Chinese characters and any other symbols that were present on the obverse side of the cash coin. Gary Ashkenazy notes that as all symbols and inscriptions found on cash coins with "flower holes" tend to be as crisp and distinct as their ordinary square holed counterparts, debunking this traditional hypothesis as being "obviously inadequate". Numismatic researcher Zhang Hongming also notes these issues with this common hypothesis, further noting that cash coins which were cast with errors are known as "wrong money" (錯範錢, 错范钱) and don't typically resemble Huachuanqian. Furthermore, all 8 sides of

2968-717: The Royal Malaysia Police obtained a court injunction against it on the grounds it would trigger ethnic tensions. The state government of Kedah in Malaysia has long defended the use of Jawi in the state. The Menteri Besar of Kedah has denied the allegation that the state government was trying to create an Islamic state ambience by promoting the use of Jawi in 2008, saying that it is a normal occurrence evidenced by Chinese coffeeshops and pawnshops having signboards written in Jawi. This can further be seen later on when

3074-621: The Sultanate of Sulu in the southern Philippines in particular developed dynastic relations with the royal house of Brunei. Even the Muslim Rajahs of Manila, Rajah Matanda , for example had family-links with the Brunei Sultanate. The Malay sultans of Pontianak , Samarinda and Banjarmasin , treated the Sultan of Brunei as their leader. The true nature of Brunei's relationship with other Malay sultanates of coastal Borneo and

3180-615: The Sulu Archipelago is still a subject of study, as to whether it was a vassal state, an alliance, or just a ceremonial relationship. Other regional polities also exercised their influence upon these sultanates. The Sultanate of Banjar (present-day Banjarmasin), for example, was also under the influence of Demak in Java. The growth of Malacca as the largest Southeast Asian entrepôt in the Maritime Silk Road led to

3286-535: The Yuan dynasty . Chinese rulers of the period prioritized war and territory conquest. Under Kublai Khan 's leadership, a military expedition headed by General Su P'e was sent to the Malay Archipelago in 1292 AD with the goal of attacking many nations, including Brunei. But the invading army were effectively repulsed by Brunei's soldiers. Feeling embarrassed to go back home, the vanquished Chinese troops asked

Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888) - Misplaced Pages Continue

3392-415: The "flower hole" and all 6 sides of the "turtle shell hole" are typically contained within the border of the cash coin's inner rim, which surrounds the hole in the middle of the coin. This means that Huachuanqian cannot have been created as the result of either a mould or sand tray shift, because then the inner rim's inside which surrounds the actual hole would likely also feature more sides if this hypothesis

3498-560: The "stack casting" method was first used, some believe that it originated during the Warring States period while others than it started sometime during the Western Han dynasty period by commoners. Ancient Chinese texts reporting on the appearance and circulation of cash coins with "flower (rosette) holes" traditionally concluded that their creation was the result of the 2 halves of the coin mould accidentally being shifted during

3604-657: The 15th century and lasted right up to the 19th century. Other forms of Arabic-based scripts existed in the region, notably the Pegon alphabet used for Javanese in Java and the Serang alphabet used for Buginese in South Sulawesi . Both writing systems applied extensive use of Arabic diacritics and added several letters which were formed differently from Jawi letters to suit the languages. Due to their fairly limited usage,

3710-771: The Chinese throne, Huachuanqian would continue to be produced, though now in drastically reduced quantities, during the subsequent dynasties. During the Ming dynasty period "flower holes" were still (rarely) recorded in Hongwu Tongbao (洪武通寶) and Yongle Tongbao (永樂通寶) cash coins, with the Chongzhen Tongbao (崇禎通寶) series being the last recorded known cash coins to have "flower holes". Centuries after their production many coin collectors regarded Huachuanqian as "rubbish" (垃圾品) coins and often mockingly referred to as "wild chrysanthemum " (野菊花) money. It wasn't until

3816-625: The Emperor's assistance in notifying the Champa government to ensure the safety of Brunei's ships stranded there due to storms. Since that time, the relationship between Brunei and China became increasingly close and friendly. Known as the " Maritime Silk Road " or " spice road ," Brunei's commerce networks were essential in linking it to other areas. As evidence of Brunei's early engagement in foreign affairs , King Hiang-ta of P'oni dispatched an embassy to China in 977 AD. Brunei's historical significance

3922-619: The Guijiachuan have been subject to numismatic study and are often grouped together with the Huachuanqian when discussing their origins, circulation, and possible hidden meanings. While Japanese , Korean , and Vietnamese cash coins are based on Chinese cash coins both in design and in production, the quality of the cash coins produced in Japan , Korea , and Vietnam varies greatly. The manufacturing techniques of these cash coins

4028-509: The Jawi script does have a regional status in native Malay areas such as Riau , Riau archipelago , Jambi , South Sumatra (i.e Palembang Malay language ), Aceh , and Kalimantan (i.e. Banjar language ). This is due to the fact that regional and native languages are compulsory studies in the basic education curriculum of each region (examples include Javanese for Javanese regions, Sundanese for Sundanese regions, Madurese for Maduranese regions, and Jawi for Malay regions). Jawi script

4134-655: The Jawi script was then deemed as the writing of the Muslims. The oldest remains of Malay using the Jawi script have been found on the Terengganu Inscription Stone , dated 702 AH (1303 CE), nearly 600 years after the date of the first recorded existence of Arabic script in the region. The inscription on the stone contains a proclamation issued by the "Sri Paduka Tuan" of Terengganu, urging his subjects to "extend and uphold" Islam and providing 10 basic Sharia laws for their guidance. This has attested

4240-474: The Jawi script. Additionally local religious scholars later began to elucidate the Islamic teachings in the forms of original writings. Moreover, there were also individuals of the community who used Jawi for the writing of literature which previously existed and spread orally. With this inclusion of written literature, Malay literature took on a more sophisticated form. This was believed to have taken place from

4346-642: The Kedah state government has shown its support with Johor state government's move to use Jawi in official matters in 2019. The exco of local authority of the state of Kedah had also stated that the Jawi script in billboards in Kedah is not forbidden, but rather recommended. He claims that the recommendation to use Jawi script has been gazetted in the state law, and that it has been part of the state identity to have billboards in Jawi script in addition to other scripts. He also stated that there are high demands in incorporating Jawi script in billboards in Kedah. Kuantan ,

Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888) - Misplaced Pages Continue

4452-581: The King of Brunei for permission to reside in the Kinabatangan valley, which is part of Sabah and is governed by Brunei. They founded a hamlet there when the King accepted their request. According to the histories of the Ming dynasty, in 1370 AD, a Chinese Emperor's ambassador on his way to Java made a halt in Brunei. The King of Brunei was titled Mahamosa, which is taken from the Chinese pronunciation of Sultan Muhammad Shah , according to this mission, which

4558-714: The Majapahit Emperor. But worse was to follow. 1369 marks the absolute nadir of Brunei's fortunes, for in that year its former subjects the Suluks put it to sack. So utterly helpless were the Bruneis, that they had to be rescued by the Majapahit fleet, which drove out the intruders, who departed laden with enormous booty and taking the two precious pearls. After the fall of Malacca to the Portuguese, Portuguese merchants traded regularly with Brunei from 1530 and described

4664-932: The Northern Song period. In the periods subsequent to the Tang dynasty Huachuanqian would continue to be manufactured on fairly large numbers. A significant amount of Huachuanqian could be found throughout the Song dynasty period. Meanwhile the coinage produced by the Khitan -led Liao dynasty was largely based on the Northern Song dynasty coinage and likewise also feature a number of cash coins with "flower holes". Song dynasty cash coins with "flower (rosette) holes" can be found in all calligraphic styles of writing including seal script , clerical script , regular script , running script , and grass script . However, Huachuanqian would become less commonly seen during

4770-511: The Philippines, before it declined in the 17th and 18th centuries. It became a British protectorate in the 19th century. The limited evidence from contemporary sources poses a challenge in understanding the history of the early Bruneian Sultanate. No local or indigenous sources exist to provide evidence for this. As a result, Chinese texts have been relied on to construct the history of early Brunei. Boni in Chinese sources most likely refers to Western Borneo , while Poli (婆利), probably located in

4876-506: The Tang dynasty the "stack casting" with clay moulds was slowly phased out in favour of the " sand casting method" (翻砂法), this new methodology of coin casting used mother coins (母錢) allowing for a consistent design to be used when mass-producing cash coins. Using this method, it isn't possible for a mould to shift as there was no longer a hard mould that could shift as was the case in the earlier casting method, meaning that "flower holes" could under no circumstances have been created during

4982-553: The World, are among the countless epics written by the Malay people. The Sufic poems by Hamzah Fansuri and many others contributed to the richness and depth of the Malay civilisation. Jawi script was the official script for the Unfederated Malay States when they were British protectorates. Today, Jawi is one of the official scripts of Brunei . In Malaysia, it is used for religious and cultural administration in

5088-587: The area was also impacted by Srivijaya , from which rulers and their supporters fled to Brunei after Raja Sailendra conquered it. When these migrants took over Kamrun, the native population was forced to flee into the interior, which may have resulted in the rise of the Murut and Bisaya peoples . Brunei is an ancient kingdom located in the Malay Archipelago, alongside other historical kingdoms such as Palembang Tua , Tarumanagara , Perlak , Pasai , Malacca , Gersik, and Demak . The kingdom, known as P'oli or Brunei,

5194-637: The arrival of Muslim merchants in the region since the seventh century. Among the oldest archaeological artefacts inscribed with Arabic script are; a tombstone of Syeikh Rukunuddin dated 48 AH (668/669 CE) in Barus, Sumatra ; a tombstone dated 290 AH (910 CE) on the mausoleum of Syeikh Abdul Qadir Ibn Husin Syah Alam located in Alor Setar , Kedah ; a tombstone found in Pekan , Pahang dated 419 AH (1026 CE);

5300-805: The arrival of the western powers such as the Spanish in the Philippines , the Dutch in southern Borneo and the British in Labuan , Sarawak and North Borneo . By 1725, Brunei had many of its supply routes to the Sultanate of Sulu. In 1888, Sultan Hashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin appealed to the British to stop further encroachment. In the same year, the British signed a "Treaty of Protection" and made Brunei

5406-411: The book Practical knowledge of Chinese coins (中國錢幣實用知識圖說) published in 1989. However, this hypothesis has been heavily scrutinised by numismatists afterwards. For example, numismatic researcher Gary Ashkenazy of the PrimalTrek website notes that this traditional explanation is problematic as a mould shift wouldn't just shift the orientation of the central hole, but it would shift everything including

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5512-495: The capital of Brunei as surrounded by a stone wall . During the rule of Bolkiah , the fifth sultan, the sultanate controlled the coastal areas of northwest Borneo (present-day Brunei, Sarawak and Sabah ) and reached Seludong (present-day Manila ) and the Sulu Archipelago , including parts of the island of Mindanao . In the 16th century, the Brunei's influence extended as far as the Kapuas River delta in West Kalimantan . The Malay Sultanate of Sambas in West Kalimantan and

5618-416: The cash coin's inner rim, which surrounds the hole in the middle. The exact origins of the first appearance of Huachuanqian is difficult to determine as there are no written records that document them. However, archeological evidence has determined that the earliest known cash coins with "flower" holes had the inscription Ban Liang (半兩) and could have been cast either during the Qin dynasty period or by

5724-401: The casting process and were most likely created by hand after they were already cast. As the "flower holes" present in the Huachuanqian could not have been caused by an error at any time in the manufacturing process, it is reasoned that they were likely created sometime after the cash coins were already extracted from the coin moulds. Following the removal of the cash coins from their moulds,

5830-402: The central hole area during coin casting process. However, as the quality of Tang and Song dynasty coinages was quite high it's unlikely that the supervisors would have allowed for a large number of these variant coins to be produced, pass quality control or be allowed to enter circulation. While it is not known why Huachuanqian were produced as no historical records explain their appearance,

5936-416: The coin mould the top and bottom halves of the coin mould would rotate or shift changing the way that the central square hole would end up creating the hexagonal or octagonal hole typically of these coins. A number of Chinese and Taiwanese numismatists and numismatic publications over the years have proposed this hypothesis, including the Concise Dictionary of Ancient Coins (簡明古錢辭典) published in 1988 and

6042-421: The coins would appear as if they were "leaves" of a " coin tree " (錢樹) where they had to be broken off, all excess copper-alloy had to be manually chiseled or filed off from the central holes. This is because the cash coins were still connected to each other by the channel-like "branches" that permitted the molten metal to be flown throughout the coin mould. The rod used during this post-removal chiseling process

6148-547: The common presence of Huachuanqian was likely an intentional embellishment. It is therefore believed that the presence of "flower holes" and "turtle shell holes" may have had an important significance. The hypotheses explaining their possible significance include: Cash coins with "turtle shell holes" (traditional Chinese: 龜甲穿錢 ; simplified Chinese: 龟甲穿钱 ; pinyin: Guījiǎ chuān qián ) are similar to Huachuanqian, but rather than having eight-sided holes, these "turtle shell holes" are six-sided. Like Huachuanqian,

6254-584: The earliest examples. At the early stage of Islamisation, the Arabic script was taught to the people who had newly embraced Islam in the form of religious practices, such as the recitation of Quran as well as salat . The Arabic script was accepted by the Malay community together with their acceptance of Islam and was adapted to suit spoken Classical Malay . Six letters were added for sounds not found in Arabic: ca , pa , ga , nga , va and nya . Some Arabic letters are rarely used as they represent sounds not present in modern Malay however may be used to reflect

6360-444: The early Tang dynasty period, the appearance of Huachuanqian was already commonly seen in general circulation. Over time they would become more common as during the middle to later years of the Tang dynasty period, the Huachuanqian would circulate all over the various territories of the empire. Chinese scholar Ding Fubao noted that the appearance of Huachuanqian was most closely associated with Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins and those of

6466-424: The emperor of his father's passing. By 1405, he dispatched another envoy to request formal recognition from the emperor, who was pleased to receive this honour. In the same year, the emperor sent an official delegation led by Cheng Ho to Brunei, bringing royal seals and gifts as a gesture of goodwill. During Abdul Majid's rule, Brunei's ties with China grew stronger. In August 1408, the Sultan traveled to China with

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6572-407: The emperor, including 100 turtle shells , camphor , five pieces of agarwood , three trays of sandalwood , raksamala wood , and six elephant tusks . The letter included three main points: to inform the Emperor about P'u-lu-shieh’s arrival in Brunei and his assistance in repairing the damaged ship; to send envoys to the Emperor as representatives, offering gifts on behalf of the king; and to request

6678-490: The employee of the manufacturing mint was doing the final details of the cash coins. As manually filing and chiseling cash coins was both an additional expense as well as time-consuming it is likely that the creation of "flower holes" and "turtle shell holes" was ordered by the manufacturer. While the possibility exists that a small number of Huachuanqian were indeed the accidental creation of casting errors by mint workers using chisels to clear excess metal that had flown into

6784-496: The envoy's logical arguments. Alongside the Chinese ambassador returning from Java in 1371, his delegation set ship for China. Under the reign of Hongwu , the relationship between Brunei and China strengthened further. In 1375, a royal prince from China named Ong Sum Ping visited Brunei and eventually married Princess Ratna Dewi, the daughter of Muhammad Shah, earning the title Pengiran Maharaja Lela . Ong's brother also married Pengiran Bendahara Pateh Berbai . In 1397, during

6890-410: The fact that they have very distinct 8-sided central holes on both their obverse and reverse sides, though the number of sides can vary. Furthermore, vast majority of known "flower (rosette) holed" cash coins tend to have very clear inscriptions. Besides "flower holes", there are also "turtle shell holes" which have 6 sides instead of 8. All sides of the hole are usually contained within the border of

6996-970: The following conventions; there are numerous exceptions to them nonetheless. Akin to the Arabic script, Jawi is constructed from right-to-left . Below is an exemplification of the Jawi script extracted from the first and second verse of the notable Ghazal untuk Rabiah , غزال اونتوق ربيعة ( English : A Ghazal for Rabiah). کيلاون اينتن برکليڤ-کليڤ دلاڠيت تيڠݢي⹁ دان چهاي مناري-ناري دلاڠيت بيرو⹁ تيدقله داڤت مننڠکن ڤراسا ء نکو⹁ يڠ ريندوکن کحاضيرن کاسيه. ݢمرسيق ايراما مردو بولوه ڤريندو⹁ دان ڽاڽين ڤاري٢ دري کايڠن⹁ تيدقله داڤت تنترمکن سانوباري⹁ يڠ مندمباکن کڤستين کاسيهمو. ‎ Kilauan intan berkelip-kelip di langit tinggi, Dan cahaya menari-nari di langit biru, Tidaklah dapat menenangkan perasaanku, Yang rindukan kehadiran kasih. Gemersik irama merdu buluh perindu, Dan nyanyian pari-pari dari kayangan, Tidaklah dapat tenteramkan sanubari, Yang mendambakan kepastian kasihmu. The glimmer of gems twinkling in

7102-427: The inscription Wu Zhu (五銖) are thought to be exceptionally rare and cash coins with "flower holes" aren't commonly seen throughout the first half of the first millennium. While the Huachuanqian is most closely associated with the establishment of the Tang dynasty where they became less rare, these earlier examples date 7 centuries before this occurred, meaning that they are much older than traditionally thought. By

7208-399: The letter from Sultan Iskandar Muda of Acèh Darussalam to King James I of England (1615), and the letter from Sultan Abdul Jalil IV of Johor to King Louis XV of France (1719). Many literary works such as epics, poetry and prose use the Jawi script. It is the pinnacle of the classic Malay civilisation. Historical epics such as the Malay Annals , as listed by UNESCO under Memories of

7314-423: The lingua franca of the region, alongside the spread of Islam. It was widely used in the Sultanate of Malacca , Sultanate of Johor , Sultanate of Maguindanao , Sultanate of Brunei , Sultanate of Sulu , Sultanate of Pattani , the Sultanate of Aceh to the Sultanate of Ternate in the east as early as the 15th century. The Jawi script was used in royal correspondences, decrees, poems and was widely understood by

7420-554: The lofty sky, And light that dances across upon the azure sky, Are not able to soothe my heart, That pines for the presence of the Beloved. The melodious rhythm of the reed flute, And the chorus of nymphs from Heaven, Are not able to calm the soul, That craves the certainty of your Love. Huachuanqian During the imperial period in Chinese history a relatively small number of Chinese cash coins were minted with what are termed "flower holes", "chestnut holes" or "rosette holes", these holes were octagonal but resembled

7526-399: The merchants in the port of Malacca as the main means of communication. Early legal digests such as the Undang-Undang Melaka Code and its derivatives including the Codes of Johor, Perak, Brunei, Kedah, Pattani and Aceh were written in this script. It is the medium of expression of kings, nobility and the religious scholars. It is the traditional symbol of Malay culture and civilisation. Jawi

7632-500: The nearby Sultanate of Sulu occurred due to infighting between Bruneian nobles and the king. Brunei eventually lost its authority over the Bajaus and lapsed into a collection of riverine territories ruled by semi-autonomous chiefs. By the end of 17th century, Brunei entered a period of decline brought on by internal strife over royal succession , colonial expansion of European powers, and piracy. Brunei lost much of its territory due to

7738-505: The numismatic researcher Zhang Hongming (张宏明) reported on them in an article entitled "The history and origins of Flower Hole Coins" (花穿钱的时代与成因问题) in Chinese Numismatics (中国钱币) published in 1994 that collector interest in Huachuanqian grew causing the Chinese coin collecting community to value Huachuanqian more causing it to grow into its own specialised sub-field of Chinese numismatics. The 4th issue of Chinese Numismatics

7844-474: The original spelling of Arabic loanwords. The sounds represented by these letters may be assimilated into sounds found in Malay's native phoneme inventory or in some instances appear unchanged. Like the other Arabic scripts, some letters are obligatorily joined while some are never joined. This was the same for the acceptance of Arabic writing in Turkey , Persia and India which had taken place earlier and thus,

7950-509: The port underscore Brunei's significance in the region's commerce and its connections with different cultures. The histories of the Liang, Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties all indicate that Brunei and China had a cordial connection. Both kingdoms' kings often dispatched envoys from their respective areas with gifts and messages. At the same time, traders also came to the ports of both kingdoms to do business. Brunei–China relations deteriorated during

8056-559: The practice of circumcision to symbolise the coming of age ), and Jawi pekan or Jawi Peranakan (literally 'Malay of the town' or 'Malay born of', referring to the Malay-speaking Muslims of mixed Malay and Indian ancestry). With verb-building circumfixes men-...-kan , menjawikan (literally ' to make something Malay ' ), also refers to the act of translating a foreign text into Malay language. The phrase Tulisan Jawi that means ' Jawi script '

8162-418: The production process of the ancient Chinese casting method. The casting process in these early moulds worked in a way that two mould-sections were placed together, then the core of the mould was placed into the top area, then the bronze smiths would pour molten metal into an opening that was formed by a cavity that was located in its centre. This explanation claims that during the pouring of molten metal into

8268-543: The production process. Despite these changes, the design and shape of cash coins have remained consistent throughout most of the monetary history of China , making cash coins easily recognised as being distinctively "Chinese" for over 2000 years. However, a relatively small number of cash coins that circulated in Chinese history notably had a differently shaped central hole with a recognisably artistic flair, namely hexagonal and octagonal central holes. The Chinese typically refer to these eight-sided holed cash coins as having

8374-402: The reign of Jiawen , an envoy from Muhammad Shah visited China along with envoys from Annam , Siam , Java, Palembang, and Pahang . This time, the Brunei delegation was officially recognized as representing Brunei rather than P'oni, as the kingdom had relocated to Kota Batu. In 1402, the reigning king was Manajekana, also known as Sultan Abdul Majid . In 1403, the Sultan sent an envoy to inform

8480-558: The reign of the Southern Song dynasty period Emperor Xiaozong . The reason for this decline in the quantity of Huachuanqian can possibly be attributed to 2 major reforms to the designs of the currency that appeared during his reign. Namely, until the year 1180 the Song dynasty produced "matched cash coins" (對錢, duì qián ) which were cash coins with identical inscriptions written in different styles of Chinese calligraphy , after these coins were superseded by cash coins that included

8586-612: The same year published a group of letters from readers, authors, and editors, after reading the response papers and letters, Zhang Hongming was deeply inspired to respond and expand his research into this field. These articles filled a big gap in the study of Chinese Huachuanqian. The traditional explanation as to why a small number of cash coins have "flower holes" is due to the fact that early cash coins were produced using clay, stone, or bronze coin moulds . Cash coins were typically cast , contrasted to Western Eurasian coins which were typically hammered . Historians still debate when

8692-552: The shape of flowers. The exact origin and purpose of these variant holes is currently unknown but several hypotheses have been proposed by Chinese scholars. While Huachuanqian are believed to have disappeared in China following the transition from Ming to Qing , they continued to appear among Korean cash coins until the Koreans abolished their cash coins . Western numismatic sources often refer to these cash coins as having "star" holes. Among coin collectors Huachuanqian sell for

8798-463: The spelling system of both scripts did not undergo similar advanced developments and modifications as experienced by Jawi. The script became prominent with the spread of Islam, supplanting the earlier writing systems. The Malays held the script in high esteem as it is the gateway to understanding Islam and its Holy Book, the Quran. The use of Jawi script was a key factor driving the emergence of Malay as

8904-406: The standard script of the Malay language, and gave birth to traditional Malay literature when it featured prominently in official correspondences, religious texts, and literary publications. With the arrival of Western influence through colonization and education, Jawi was relegated to religious education, with the Malay language eventually adopting a form of the Latin alphabet called Rumi that

9010-580: The state capital of Pahang in Malaysia has introduced the usage of Jawi on all signage across the city from 1 August 2019. This was done after a recommendation from the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, who was then the Regent of Pahang, to uphold usage of the writing system. The Pahang state government has since expanded the order and made it mandatory for every signage statewide including road signs to display Jawi alongside other scripts from 1 January 2020 after being delayed

9116-558: The states of Terengganu , Kelantan , Kedah , Perlis , Penang , Pahang and Johor . Various efforts were in place to revive the Jawi script in Malaysia and Brunei due to its role in the Malay and Islamic spheres. Jawi is also seen on the reverse of Malaysian ringgit and Brunei dollar banknotes. Malays in Patani still use Jawi today for the same reasons. In August 2019, the Malaysian Government's plans to introduce

9222-654: The strong observance of the Muslim faith in the early 14th century Terengganu specifically and the Malay world as a whole. The development of Jawi script was different from that of Pallava writing which was exclusively restricted to the nobility and monks in monasteries. The Jawi script was embraced by the entire Muslim community regardless of class. With the increased intensity in the appreciation of Islam, scriptures originally written in Arabic were translated in Malay and written in

9328-468: The succeeding Han dynasty . While these early contenders are quite well documented, other early examples of Huachuanqian include a number of types of Xin dynasty coinages , including Hou Quan (貨泉) cash coins and a variety of the Huo Bu (貨布) coin, a type of coinage produced during the reign of Emperor Wang Mang which resembled ancient Zhou dynasty period shovel- or spade shaped-money . Huachuanqian with

9434-460: The system was developed and derived directly from the Arabic script , while scholars like R. O. Windstedt suggest it was developed with the influence of the Perso-Arabic alphabet . The ensuing trade expansions and the spread of Islam to other areas of Southeast Asia from the 15th century carried the Jawi alphabet beyond the traditional Malay-speaking world. Until the 20th century, Jawi was

9540-500: The teaching of Jawi at the most basic level in ethnic Chinese and Tamil vernacular schools attracted opposition from ethnic Chinese and Indian education groups, which claimed that the move would lead to an Islamization of the Malaysian education system. The Chinese educationist group Dong Jiao Zong organised a conference calling on the Malaysian Government to rescind its decision in late December 2019. Perhaps fearing violence,

9646-595: The throne was held by his uncle, Pateh Berbai, who took the title Sultan Ahmad, as Hsia-wang was only four years old at that time. Between 1415 and 1425, relations between Brunei and China remained stable, with Brunei sending four envoys to China during those years. However, after 1425, the relationship began to deteriorate, and it was not until 1530 that Brunei sent envoys to China again, alongside delegations from Siam, Champa, and Java. Jawi alphabet Jawi ( جاوي ‎ ; Acehnese : Jawoë ; Kelantan-Pattani : Yawi ; Malay pronunciation: [d͡ʒä.wi] )

9752-422: The year 1180, which was also the same year that the government of the Song dynasty abolished the issuance of "matched cash coins". Due to this it is hypothesised that "flower holes" were added to Chinese cash coins to signify a year or period of the year or possibly a location where a cash coin was produced ( see below ). While the appearance of Huachuanqian saw an abrupt decline after Emperor Xiaozong ascended to

9858-481: The year of production on their reverse sides the practice of casting cash coins with "flower holes" also seems to have drastically decreased. This practice started during the 7th year of the production of the Chunxi Yuanbao (淳熙元寶), which was produced from 1174 until the year 1189. This practice started with the traditional Chinese character "七" (7) appearing on the reverse sides of Chunxi Yuanbao cash coins in

9964-604: Was also identical to those employed by Chinese cash coins. Yet, only very, very few cash coins from countries in the Sinosphere outside of China seem to display "flower holes". The general absence of "flower holes" in Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese cash coins strengthens the hypothesis that Huachuanqian were intentionally created instead of being a result of poor casting quality, as "flower holes" would then be as common or more common in these other cash coins. An example of

10070-502: Was based on the Za'aba system. Jawi can be typed using the Jawi keyboard . The word Jawi ( جاوي ) is a shortening of the term in Arabic : الجزائر الجاوي , romanized :  Al-Jaza'ir Al-Jawi , lit.   'Java Archipelago', which is the term used by Arabs for Nusantara . The word jawi is a loanword from Javanese : ꦗꦮꦶ , romanized:  jawi which

10176-493: Was called their "flesh" (肉) and the central hole was known as "the good" (好). Cash coins were generally cast as opposed to being hammered. Over the millennia that they were issues by various dynastic states, the square hole in the centre of cash coins had experienced numerous, but minor changes over their long history. These changes resulted in the square hole in the centre being slightly bigger, smaller, elongated, misshaped, or at times they were filled with some excess metal from

10282-541: Was correct. Finally, the issue with this hypothesis is the fact that 4 "additional" sides form a standard-sized square would merely be rotated about 45 degrees from the primary square central hole rather than create the effect we see in Huachuanqian. Cash coins with "flower holes" became more common with the introduction of the Kaiyuan Tongbao (開元通寶) during the reign of Emperor Gaozu of the Tang dynasty . During

10388-541: Was covered with nipa palm leaves . In 977 AD, a Chinese merchant of Arab descent named P'u-lu-shieh (Fairuz Shah) arrived in Brunei for trade, receiving a warm welcome from the king and the local populace. Upon his return to China, the King requested P'u-lu-shieh to escort his envoy to the Chinese Emperor. P'u-lu-shieh agreed, and the royal delegation was led by Abu Ali (Pu Ya Li), Syeikh Noh (Shih-Nu), and Qadi Kasim (Koh-shin). They brought letters and gifts for

10494-581: Was developed during the advent of Islam in Maritime Southeast Asia , supplanting the earlier Brahmic scripts used during Hindu-Buddhist era. The oldest evidence of Jawi writing can be found on the 14th century Terengganu Inscription Stone , a text in Classical Malay that contains a mixture of Malay, Sanskrit and Arabic vocabularies. There are two competing theories on the origins of the Jawi alphabet. Popular theory suggests that

10600-549: Was generated and they have since been seen as their own separate category of cash coins. From the Warring States period of the Zhou dynasty until the early 20th century the standard cash coin was round with a square central hole. The round shape of the coin symbolised the supposed round shape of the sky, while the centre hole in this analogy is said to represent the planet earth (天圓地方). The body of these early round coins

10706-565: Was headed by Sin Tze and Chang Ching Tze. According to Sin Tze the monarch was bold, powerful, and furious. But he also stated that Brunei's defenses were weakened because of the Suluk people 's annihilation. Because of Brunei's poverty and continued tribute to Majapahit, Muhammad Shah was hesitant to follow Sin Tze's advice to seek protection from China and to deliver tribute. The Sultan eventually decided to send an embassy to China after being convinced by

10812-400: Was recorded as 45 days to Java , 40 days to Palembang , and 30 days to Champa . During the Song dynasty , Brunei, referred to as Puni, was noted as a large and powerful state, ruling over 14 regions and boasting 100 warships. The people were known for their bravery in battle, wielding swords and spears, and wearing armor made of copper for protection against enemy attacks. Rice cultivation

10918-427: Was safe, sheltered, and prosperous, attracting merchants from diverse backgrounds, including those from China, Java, Siam, Palembang, Kelantan, Pahang, Cambodia, Makassar , Pattani , and Suluk. During this period, the goods traded at Brunei's port included camphor, gemstones, wax, honey, pearls, gold, spices, pottery, silk, tin, rattan, and various foodstuffs. The bustling trade and the wide variety of goods exchanged at

11024-495: Was square so that once the cash coins, with their square holes in the middle, were stacked onto the rod the coins could no longer rotate. The coin mint workers could then use a file to remove any metal excess sprue (stubs) leftover around the rims that were made during the casting process, making sure that in the result the outer rims of the cash coins were round. It is suspected that the "flower holes" and "turtle shell holes" were produced during chiseling process, presumably while

11130-410: Was the main source of income for the people of Brunei, whose land was said to be extremely productive. Some also fished and reared chickens and goats. In addition to many other handicrafts, the ladies were adept at weaving fabric, creating mats, and constructing baskets. The capital of Brunei, which had around 10,000 residents, was encircled by wooden defences. Like the people's dwellings, the royal palace

11236-404: Was used not only amongst the ruling class, but also the common people. The Islamisation and Malayisation of the region popularised Jawi into a dominant script. Royal correspondences for example are written, embellished and ceremoniously delivered. Examples of royal correspondences still in the good condition are the letter between Sultan Hayat of Ternate and King John III of Portugal (1521),

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